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ABDUCTION- To draw away from or deviate from the midline of the body; opposite of adduction; side movement away from the midline of the body; Example, a side leg raise moving the leg away from the body's center.

abrasion-A scraping away of skin or mucous membrane as the result of an injury or by other mechanical means.

abs-Slang for rectus abdominus muscle.

Acceptable daily intake (ADI)-The amount of chemical that, if ingested daily over a lifetime, appears to be without appreciable effect.

acclimatization-The process of becoming accustomed (physiologically adapting) to an unfamiliar environment, for example, the body can adjust to a high altitude or a hot climate and increase its capacity to work in those conditions.

accommodative resistance-The application of a resistive force that controls the speed with which an individual is able to move, thereby allowing him to work at maximal resistance throughout the complete range of motion; this is very useful during rehabilitation, when injuries are present, and also in sports training for speed-strength; also referred to as isokinetic resistance; see also isokinetic resistance.

acesulfame K-Acesulfame K, or acesulfame potassium, is a low-calorie sweetener approved for use in the United States in 1988. It is an organic salt consisting of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, sulphur and potassium atoms. It is 200 times sweeter than sucrose, has a synergistic sweetening effect with other sweeteners, has a stable shelf-life and is heat stable. It is excreted through the human digestive system unchanged, and is therefore non-caloric.

acetyl Co-A-Acetyl Co-enzyme A; a substance that is formed by an acetyl group attaching itself to coenzyme A (CoA); the acetyl group is formed either from pyruvate, the breakdown product of glycolysis (the breakdown of sugars), or beta-oxidation (the breakdown of fats), and is used to enter the Kreb's cycle and generate energy in the form of ATP.

Achilles tendinitis-Inflammation of the Achilles tendon (tendon found at the back of the heel); rest and ice are the two recommended treatments for Achilles tendinitis.

acid-base balance-The mechanisms by which the pH of the body fluids are kept in a state of balance so that arterial blood is kept at a constant pH level of 7.35 to 7.45; The pH of blood is kept from becoming too acidic or alkaline through respiration, buffers, and work done by the kidney.

acromegaly-A chronic disorder developing in adult life characterized by increased massiveness of the bones, organs and other body parts and elongation and enlargement of the bones of the extremities and certain head bones, especially of the frontal bone and jaws, with enlargement of the nose and lips and thickening of the soft tissues of the face; caused by increased levels of growth hormone.

actin-One of the fibrous contractile proteins found in a myofibril.

active (dynamic) stretching-A technique in stretching muscle and tissue that requires muscle contraction through a range of motion; no outside force is involved.

active recovery-Performing light aerobic exercise, stretching exercises, or working other body parts to facilitate recovery after intense exercise to allow for more productive use of exercise time and to encourage blood flow to the muscles.

actomyosin-The protein complex involved in muscle contraction and relaxation which is composed of actin and myosin protein filaments.

acute-Having a rapid onset; sharp, severe; opposite of chronic.

adaptation-The ability of the body to adjust; Example, the body's ability to adjust to hot or cold climates.

additives-Substances other than a foodstuff present in food as a result of production, processing, storage or packaging; Examples, preservatives, coloring, thickeners (gums), and binders.

additives (food additives)-Any natural or synthetic material, other than the basic raw ingredients, used in the production of a food item to enhance the final product. Any substance that may affect the characteristics of any food, including those used in the production, processing, treatment, packaging, transportation or storage of food.

adduction-To bring toward the midline of the body; opposite of abduction; Example, bringing the elbows together in front of the body like a chest press working the pectoralis muscle.

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-A high-energy molecule from which the body derives its energy; produced aerobically and anaerobically, and stored in the body.

Adequate Intake (AI) -A value established through experimental or observational data that show a mean intake which appears to sustain a desired indicator or health when sufficient scientific evidence is not available to estimate an average requirement and no RDA exists. The AIs are part of the DRIs.

adherence-The degree to which an individual follows a given prescribed program; for example, the amount of activity engaged in during a specified time period compared to the amount of activity recommended for that time period.

adipose tissue-Fatty tissue; connective tissue made up of fat cells.

ADP-Adenosine di-phosphate, a high energy phosphate molecule involved in the production and storage of energy. The end product of the mono-phosphate reduction of ATP. aerobic-With, or in the presence of, oxygen; Aerobic metabolism most efficiently produces the basic energy source, adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Walking, jogging, biking, an aerobic exercise class and any activity which maintains the heart rate in the THR zone for a minimum of 20 minutes is aerobic activity. Tennis and basketball are not considered aerobic activities.

aerobic exercise-Aerobic exercise refers sustained exercise that uses large muscle groups and places demands on the cardiovascular system.

aerobic exercise (training)-Exercise with the purpose of developing aerobic or cardiovascular conditioning; activities in which oxygen from the blood is required to fuel the energy-producing mechanisms of muscle fibers; Examples, running, cycling, rowing, cross-country skiing. aerobic interval training-Training method characterized by intervals of high and low intensity of pre-determined duration; heart rate typically remains at 60-80% of MHR, with 2-15 minute intervals; used to develop the aerobic energy system.

aerobic threshold intervals-Used to develop ability to use oxygen while performing at a higher intensity; exercise is performed for a pre-determined time at anaerobic threshold, combined with a period of active recovery; This training can be modified in terms of intensity and duration of the exercise interval and the number of work intervals per workout.

afterburn-Calories used due to an increase in metabolic rate following exercise activities.

agonist (muscle)-Muscle that is directly involved in contraction; primarily responsible for movement; opposes the action of an antagonist (opposite) muscle. During a bicep curl, the bicep is the active muscle or agonist; compare antagonist.

allergen (food allergen)-A food allergen is the part of a food (a protein) that stimulates the immune system of food allergic individuals. A single food can contain multiple food allergens. Carbohydrates or fats are not allergens.

allergy (food allergy)-A food allergy is any adverse reaction to an otherwise harmless food or food component (a protein) that involves the body's immune system. To avoid confusion with other types of adverse reactions to foods, it is important to use the terms "food allergy" or "food hypersensitivity" only when the immune system is involved in causing the reaction.

all-or-none principle-The principle of muscle contraction that states that when a motor unit is activated, all of the muscle fibers in that given motor unit will maximally contract or not contract at all.

amenorrhea-The absence of menstruation; somewhat more common in women engaging in excessive exercise; thorough medical exam is required to determine the exact cause.

amino acids-Amino acids function as the building blocks of proteins. Chemically, amino acids are organic compounds containing an amino (NH2) group and a carboxyl (COOH) group. Amino acids are classified as essential, nonessential and conditionally essential. If body synthesis is inadequate to meet metabolic need, an amino acid is classified as essential and must be supplied as part of the diet. Essential amino acids include leucine, isoleucine, valine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, methionine, threonine, lysine, histidine and possibly arginine (conditionally essential). Nonessential amino acids can be synthesized by the body in adequate amounts, and include alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline and serine. Conditionally essential amino acids become essential under certain clinical conditions. AMP-Adenosine mono-phosphate, a phosphate molecule involved in the production of energy in the body. The end product of the mono-phosphate reduction of ADP or the di-phosphate reduction of ATP. Used to regenerate ATP levels. anabolic androgenic steroids-A general class of hormones (or synthetic derivatives) of the male sex hormone testosterone which simulates testosterone's tissue building and masculinizing properties.

anabolism-The metabolic processes which build up body tissue; Example, muscle-building; anabolism is the opposite of catabolism.

anaerobic-Outside the presence of oxygen; not requiring oxygen; Anaerobic activities produce higher levels of lactic acids and carbon dioxide than aerobic activities. Short duration activities, requiring bursts of energy, are usually anaerobic.

anaerobic exercise-Short-term, highly intense activities in which muscle fibers derive energy for contraction from stored internal energy sources without the use of oxygen from the blood; stored energy sources include ATP, CP, and glycogen; Examples, short burst, intense efforts, such as in sprinting or weightlifting.

anaerobic glycolysis-The metabolic pathway that uses glucose or stored glycogen for energy production without requiring oxygen; sometimes referred to as the lactic acid system or anaerobic glucose system, it produces lactic acid as a by-product.

anaerobic interval training-Training designed to teach the body to derive energy from the anaerobic system to improve muscular strength and speed and develop the athlete's ability to remove lactate from the muscles; characterized by intervals of higher and lower intensity; Aerobic interval training typically exceeds 85% of MHR with 30 second to 4 minute intervals.

anaerobic threshold-The point during high intensity activity when the body can no longer meet its demand for oxygen and anaerobic metabolism predominates; also called lactate threshold.

anatomical planes-Three planes of the human body in the anatomical position: sagittal, frontal, and transverse.

anatomical position-Description of human body when body is erect, arms are down at sides, and palms are forward; used for describing positions on the body or directions of movement of the body.

anatomy-The study of the structure of an organism or its elements; Human anatomy refers to the study of the human body.

anemia-Anemia is a condition in which a deficiency in the size or number of erythrocytes (red blood cells) or the amount of hemoglobin they contain limits the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the tissue cells. Most anemias are caused by a lack of nutrients required for normal erythrocyte synthesis, principally iron, vitamin B-12, and folic acid. Others result from a variety of conditions, such as hemorrhage, genetic abnormalities, chronic disease states or drug toxicity.

anemic-Condition characterized by a reduction below normal of the number of red blood cells or hemoglobin in the blood, often displaying symptoms of fatigue.

angina-See angina pectoris.

angina pectoris-Pain in the chest due to insufficient blood supply and oxygen to the heart; can be characterized as a crushing pain or by a substantial "pressure" sensation within the chest, commonly radiating down the arm, up into the jaw, or to another site; Angina pectoris is caused by an obstructed coronary artery and insufficient oxygen to the heart muscle.

Anorexia Nervosa-An eating disorder characterized by refusal to maintain a minimally normal weight for height and age. The condition includes weight loss leading to maintenance of body weight 15 percent below normal; an intense fear of weight gain or becoming fat, despite the individual's underweight status; a disturbance in the self-awareness of one's own body weight or shape; and in females, the absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles that would otherwise be expected to occur. Anorexia Nervosa-A psychological eating disorder characterized by refusal to maintain a minimally normal weight for height and age; This condition includes: weight loss leading to maintenance of body weight 15 percent below normal; an intense fear of weight gain or becoming fat despite the individual's underweight status; a disturbance in the self-awareness of one's own body weight or shape; and in females, the absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles that would otherwise be expected to occur. Metabolic abnormalities are commonly associated with this disorder and can sometimes be fatal.

antagonist-Muscle that works against or in opposition of an agonist muscle; while one muscle group flexes, another extends; During a biceps curl, the biceps is the agonist and the triceps is the antagonist; see also agonist. anterior-Toward the front; frontal segment; Example: the quadriceps are anterior to the hamstring. anthropometric measurements-Measurement and analysis of parts of the human body; Examples, skinfold, girth, and body weight.

antibiotics-Antibiotics are used in animal agriculture for two reasons. First, to improve the rate of growth and the feed efficiency of animals so they produce more meat or milk on less feed. The second reason is to prevent and treat diseases, just as in humans.

antibody-Protein produced by the immune system of humans and higher animals in response to the presence of a specific antigen.

antigen-A foreign substance (almost always a protein) that, when introduced into the body, stimulates an immune response.

antioxidant-Antioxidants protect key cell components by neutralizing the damaging effects of "free radicals," natural byproducts of cell metabolism. Free radicals form when oxygen is metabolized, or burned by the body. They travel through cells, disrupting the structure of other molecules, causing cellular damage. Such cell damage is believed to contribute to aging and various health problems. Antioxidants include vitamins A, C, E, and selenium. Other potential antioxidants include pycnogenol, nordihydroguairetic acid (NDGA), glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and others. Antioxidants are also referred to as free-radical "scavengers".

antisense-A piece of DNA that produces the mirror image, or antisense messenger RNA, that is exactly opposite in sequence to one that directs the cells to produce a specific protein. Since the antisense RNA binds tightly to its image, it prevents the protein from being made.

aorta-The main arterial vessel; arises from the left ventricle of the heart and carries blood to all parts of the body; The aorta is the largest artery in the body.

aponeurosis-A broad, flat tendinous sheet of connective tissue that extends from the fibrous wrapping of a muscle and connects that muscle to adjacent structures, usually the wrappings of another muscle.

arachidonic acid-An omega-6 essential fatty acid which is an important precursor to the formation of prostaglandins.

arrhythmia-Abnormal heart rhythm or beat.

arteries-Vessels that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart; the carotid artery is commonly used to monitor the heart rate.

arterioles-Smaller divisions of the arteries as they get farther away from the heart and lead to capillaries.

arteriosclerosis-The hardening, thickening or loss of elasticity of the wall of an artery; precedes cardiovascular disease such as stroke and coronary artery disease; Arteriosclerosis is sometimes referred to as "hardening of the arteries".

arthritis-Inflammation of one or more joints; a potentially painful disorder that limits comfortable range of motion; The exercise prescription for arthritis should include slow, controlled exercises that work the full range of motion; see also osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.

articulation-Place of union or junction between two or more bones; joint.

aspartame-Aspartame is a low-calorie sweetener used in a variety of foods and beverages and as a tabletop sweetener. It is about 200 times sweeter than sugar. Aspartame is made by joining two amino acids, aspartic acid and phenylalanine.

asthma-Asthma is a chronic medical condition, affecting approximately 10 million Americans (3 to 4 percent of the population). Asthma results when irritants (or trigger substances) cause swelling of the tissues in the air passage of the lungs, making it difficult to breathe. Typical symptoms of asthma include wheezing, shortness of breath and coughing.

asthma-An intermittent obstruction of the tubes that carry air to and from the lungs characterized by episodes of difficulty breathing; For some, asthma is brought on only by exercise. Symptoms of exercise-induced asthma are coughing and shortness of breath after only 8-12 minutes of exercise. Participants should consult a doctor and obtain an exercise prescription.

atherosclerosis-A condition that exists when too much cholesterol builds up in the blood and accumulates in the walls of the blood vessels, often referred to as 'hardening of the arteries'.

atherosclerosis-The most common and serious form of arteriosclerosis; Fatty substances and other debris collect in the inner lining of the arteries, forming plaques that encroach upon the passageway and gradually obstruct the flow of blood. Atherosclerosis is associated with a high-fat diet.

athlete's heart-An enlarged heart muscle found in endurance athletes; Athlete's heart is the result of large, strong muscle fibers in the heart's left ventricle, which are well conditioned by pushing out a great volume of blood.

atom-The smallest divisible unit of an element in nature in which that element still holds its natural properties as that element.

ATPase-Enzyme which acts to split the ATP molecule.

ATP-Adenosine triphosphate, a high energy phosphate molecule used to store and release energy for work within the body.

ATP-Adenosine triphosphate, a high-energy molecule from which the body derives its energy; see also adenosine triphosphate.

ATP-CP system-Energy system that utilizes ATP and creatine phosphate; see also adenosine triphosphate and creatine phosphate.

atrium-One of the two (left and right) upper chambers of the heart (Pl. atria); acts as a collection chamber for the heart prior to entering the ventricles to leave the heart .

atrophy-Decrease in the cross-sectional size of a muscle due to lack of use or disease; Example: the arm, after it has been in a cast for a period of time, is usually smaller than before it was broken. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)-Commonly called "hyperactivity," Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is a clinical diagnosis based on specific criteria. These include excessive motor activity, impulsiveness, short attention span, low tolerance to frustration and onset before 7 years of age.

autogenic inhibition-Automatic relaxation reflex caused by excessive stimulation of Golgi tendon organs (GTOs).

avascular-Lacking in blood vessels or having a poor blood supply; not vascular; said of tissues such as cartilage and ligaments. avulsion-The forcible separation or tearing of tissue from the body.

axis of rotation-The imaginary line or point about which an object, such as a body or a lever, rotates.

Bb

ball and socket joints-Triaxial joints constructed as they sound: a rounded or ball-shaped surface which fits into a concave hole or socket; The hip joint and shoulder joint are examples of ball and socket joints.

ballistic-Abouncing movement relying on gravity; Ballistic stretching was once thought to be the best way to improve flexibility. It has since been found that ballistic stretching can potentially tear muscles resulting in scar tissue that is inflexible.

basal metabolic rate (BMR)-The lowest rate of energy metabolism of a person at rest, 12-18 hours after eating; the lowest rate of metabolism compatible with life; Physical exertion speeds up the basal metabolic rate.

behavioral contract-A written agreement to oneself or another to behave in a prescribed manner.

beta oxidation-Process by which fat is broken down in order to generate ATP.

beta-blockers (beta-adrenergic blocking agents)-Medications that "block" or limit sympathetic nervous system stimulation; They act to slow the heart rate and decrease maximum heart rate, and are used for cardiovascular and other medical conditions. Individuals on beta blockers will have a lowered blood pressure, resting heart rate, training heart rate, and maximal heart rate.

beta-carotene-A carotenoid (pigment) found in yellow, orange and deep green vegetables which provides a source of vitamin A when ingested; This substance has been found to have antioxidant properties.

beta-oxidation-The process by which fats, in the form of Acyl-CoA molecules, are broken down in the mitochondria to generate Acetyl-CoA, the entry molecule for Kreb's Cycle.

bias-Bias occurs when problems in study design lead to effects that are not related to the variables being studied. An example is selection bias, which occurs when study subjects are chosen in a way that can misleadingly increase or decrease the strength of an association. Choosing experimental and control group subjects from different populations would result in a selection bias.

bi-axial joint-Joint that allows motion in two planes of motion; Example, condyloid joint such as the wrist.

bilateral-Affecting two sides; see also unilateral.

biochemistry-The study of the chemistry within biological organisms.

bioelectrical impedance (BIA)-A method of determining body composition by measuring the body's resistance to electrical flow; the results of this method are greatly affected by proper hydration.

biomechanics-The study of the internal and external forces acting on the body and the effects produced by these forces; the study of the mechanical aspects of physical movement, such as torque, drag, and posture, that is used to enhance athletic technique.

biotechnology-"Applied biology", the application of biological knowledge and techniques to develop products. It may be further defined as the use of living organisms to make a product or run a process. By this definition, the classic techniques used for plant and animal breeding, fermentation and enzyme purification would be considered biotechnology. Some people use the term only to refer to newer tools of genetic science. In this context, biotechnology may be defined as the use of biotechnical methods to modify the genetic materials of living cells so they will produce new substances or perform new functions.

Examples include recombinant DNA technology, in which a copy of a piece of DNA containing one or a few genes is transferred between organisms or "recombined" within an organism.

bi's-Slang for biceps brachii muscle, located at the front of the arm.

blind (single or double) experiment-In a single blind experiment, the subjects do not know whether they are receiving an experimental treatment or a placebo. In a double blind experiment, neither the researchers nor the participants are aware of which subjects receive the treatment - until after the study is completed.

blood doping-A technique that consists of giving a blood transfusion to add red blood cells to increase the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood; An athlete using this technique will usually have blood drawn and stored. Once the athlete's blood levels have returned to normal, adding back in the removed red blood cells gives the athlete an increased number of red blood cells. It is illegal in most competitions. Risks include blood coagulation in the arteries presenting a risk of death. Blood doping has been suggested in the deaths of some elite endurance athletes.

blood glucose-Blood glucose (blood sugar) refers to sugar in the form of glucose. The blood sugar level in humans is normally 60 to 100 milligrams per 100 milliliters of blood; it rises after a meal to as much as 150 milligrams per 100 milliliter of blood, but this may vary.

blood pressure-The force exerted against heart and blood vessel walls by passing blood; When a blood pressure reading is taken, the systolic over diastolic value is determined. Systolic pressure is primarily caused by the heartbeat or contraction. The diastolic pressure is taken when the heart is filling with blood between beats. Blood pressure values vary appreciably depending on age, sex, and ethnicity. A typical adult reading may be 120mm Hg over 80mm Hg, stated 120 over 80. Blood pressures above 140 over 90 at rest are considered high; see diastolic and systolic.

blood-Blood is the fluid which circulates through the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries. It is composed of red blood cells, white blood cells and blood platelets, and an interstitial fluid called plasma. It derives its reddish color from the iron within the hemoglobin. Blood functions to provide nutrition and respiration for tissues located far from food and air supplies. It also transports waste from the tissues to the excretory organs. Blood provides chemical and thermal regulation to the body and helps prevent infection by transporting antibodies.

BMR (basal metabolic rate)-See basal metabolic rate.

body composition test-A test or tests used to determine percentage of body fat; Examples, underwater or hydrostatic, skinfold, anthropometric, or electrical impedance.

body composition-The proportion of body fat to fat free mass.

body mass index (BMI)-A relative measure of body weight (in kg) to body height (in meters squared) for determining degree of obesity; BMI's over 30 are considered obese according to U.S. standards.

bodybuilding-Training with the specific goal to enhance musculature and physical appearance.

bodyfat-Term often used to describe the percentage of fat in the body.

bone-Dense connective tissue that composes the skeleton; Bones may be strengthened through proper exercise-typically through exercise that requires weight bearing on the bone. bonked-Slang term meaning to run out of energy.

Borg's scale (of perceived exertion)-A scale using perceived exertion with a numerical code to determine the level of exertion; The scale helps participants tune into their bodies since metabolism and functions can vary from day to day. There are two versions of the Borg scale, classical, based upon a scale of zero to 20 and the modified Borg scale, which is more common, based upon a scale of zero to 10.

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)-(mad cow disease) Bovine spongiform encephalopathy, or BSE, is also known as "mad cow disease." It is a rare, chronic degenerative disease affecting the brain and central nervous system of cattle. Cattle with BSE lose their coordination, develop abnormal posture and experience changes in behavior. Clinical symptoms take 4-5 years to develop, followed by death in a period of several weeks to months unless the affected animal is destroyed sooner.

brachial artery-The main artery of the arm, located in the upper inside of the arm; In CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation), the brachial artery is used for palpating the pulse of infants.

bradycardia-Slower than average resting heart rate, due to the increased efficiency of the heart through aerobic conditioning in an athlete; A heart rate of less than 60 beats per minute is typical of bradycardia. Slow HR is considered to mean poor health for a non-athlete, but a sign of cardiac fitness for an athlete.

branched chain amino acids (BCAA) - The essential amino acids valine, leucine, and isoleucine. The "branched chain" refers to the chemical structure of these amino acids. Thought to be important because they can be used to generate glucose for use as energy.

branched chain amino acids (BCAA)-The amino acids L-leucine, L-isoleucine and Lvaline, which have a particular molecular structure that gives them their name; BCAAs comprise 35 percent of muscle tissue. BCAAs may be burned as fuel during highly intense training, and at the end of long-distance events, when the body recruits protein for as much as 20 percent of its energy needs.

brewer's yeast-A non-leavening yeast used as a nutritional supplement for its rich content of vitamins (particularly B complex), minerals and amino acids.

bromelain-A proteolytic enzyme (protein-splitting enzyme) found in pineapples; it is thought to reduce inflammation and edema and accelerate tissue repair; fresh pineapple is the best source.

bronchioles-The smallest tubes that supply air to the alveoli (air sacs) of the lungs.

bronchitis-Acute or chronic inflammation of the mucous membranes of the bronchial tubes; see chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

bronchodilators-Drugs that are designed to expand the bronchial tubes by relaxing the constricted bronchial smooth muscle, used by asthmatics; Example, Proventil.

buffed-Slang term used to describe someone with good muscle size and definition.

Bulimia Nervosa-An eating disorder characterized by rapid consumption of a large amount of food in a short period of time, with a sense of lack of control during the episode and self-evaluation unduly influenced by body weight and shape. There are two forms of the condition, purging and non-purging. The first type regularly engages in purging through self-induced vomiting or the excessive use of laxatives or diuretics. Alternatively, the non-purging type controls weight through strict dieting, fasting or excessive exercise.

Bulimia nervosa-An eating disorder also known as "binge and purge"; A bulimic person often overeats then induces vomiting and/or the use of diuretics or laxatives. Bulimia is a disorder that can become life threatening. This condition requires medical intervention; treatment involves psychotherapy.

bulking up-Slang referring to the process of gaining body weight by adding muscle, bodyfat or both.

bulk-Slang referring to muscle mass achieved through strength training.

bursa-A lubricating and protective sac located between certain connective tissue, i.e., between tendon and bone, tendon and ligament, or other structures, usually in the vicinity of joints; (Pl. bursae).

bursitis-The inflammation of a bursa; occurs most often in the knees, hips, shoulders, and elbows.

Cc

caffeine-Caffeine is a naturally-occurring substance found in the leaves, seeds or fruits of over 63 plant species worldwide and is part of a group of compounds known as methylxanthines. The most commonly known sources of caffeine are coffee and cocoa beans, cola nuts and tea leaves. Caffeine is a pharmacologically active substance and, depending on the dose, can be a mild central nervous system stimulant. Caffeine does not accumulate in the body and is normally excreted within several hours of consumption.

caffeine-Chemical found in coffee, black tea, and cola drinks with an ability to stimulate the nervous system; In small amounts, it can create mental alertness and has been shown to increase endurance capacity. In larger amounts, it can cause nervousness, anxiety, sleeplessness, and is used medicinally as a diuretic and headache remedy.

calorie-A calorie is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one milliliter (ml) of water at a standard initial temperature by one Celsius degree, specifically between 14.5 and 15.5 degrees Celsius at 1 atmosphere of pressure (sea level). Use of a capital "C" for Calorie indicates 1,000 calories, or one kilocalorie. Calorie is the standard unit for energy measurement in nutrition.

calorie-The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water one Celsius degree between 14.5 and 15.5 degrees Celsius; When referring to the energy content of food, the actual calories are kilocalories (1000 calories) and should be written with a capital "C".

Calorie-The standard unit for energy measurement in nutrition. Equal to one kilocalorie or 1,000 calories.

capillaries-Tiny blood channels that are the point of nutrient exchange; Capillaries deliver oxygen to the tissues and withdraw carbon dioxide to be carried through the veins to the heart and lungs. They connect the arterial and venous systems.

carbohydrate (CHO)-An essential nutrient that provides energy to the body; CHOs are also the most efficient fuel for other body functions. Sources of CHO include vegetables, fruit, rice, bread, pasta and whole grains. 1 gm CHO yields 4 kilocalories of energy.

carbohydrate loading-Sequence of up to a week-long regimen of manipulating intensity of training and carbohydrate intake to achieve maximum glycogen storage for an endurance event; primarily benefits athletes participating in events over 60 minutes long, where glycogen can become depleted to inhibit work capacity.

carbohydrate-Carbohydrates are organic compounds that consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They vary from simple sugars containing from three to seven carbon atoms to very complex polymers. Only the hexoses (sugars with six carbon atoms) and pentoses (sugars with five carbon atoms) and their polymers play important roles in nutrition. Carbohydrates in food provide 4 calories per gram. Plants manufacture and store carbohydrates as their chief source of energy. The glucose synthesized in the leaves of plants is used as the basis for more complex forms of carbohydrates. Classification of carbohydrates relates to their structural core of simple sugars, saccharides. Principal monosaccharides that occur in food are glucose and fructose. Three common disaccharides are sucrose, maltose and lactose. Polysaccharides of interest in nutrition include starch, dextrin, glycogen and cellulose.

cardiac cycle-The period from the beginning of one heart beat to the beginning of the next; the systolic and diastolic movement, and the interval in between.

cardiac muscle-One of the body's 3 types of muscle, found only in the heart.

cardiac output-The volume of blood expelled by the ventricles of the heart each minute; equal to the amount of blood ejected at each beat multiplied by the number of beats per minute; usually expressed in liters of blood per minute. The cardiac output can increase with regular aerobic exercise.

cardiopulmonary-Pertaining to the heart and lungs.

cardiorespiratory endurance-The ability to perform large muscle movement over a sustained period; the capacity of the heart-lung system to deliver oxygen for sustained energy production; also called cardiovascular endurance.

cardiorespiratory-Referring to the heart, lungs, and blood vessels working together to deliver oxygen to the body and to remove unwanted waste products such as carbon dioxide.

cardiovascular disease (CVD)-General term for any disease of the heart and blood vessels; includes coronary artery disease, hypertension, stroke, congestive heart failure, peripheral vascular disease and valvular heart disease.

cardiovascular endurance-See cardiorespiratory endurance. cardiovascular-Referring to the heart (cardio), blood, and blood vessels (vascular).

caries-See dental caries.

carnitine (L-carnitine)-Carrier protein that assists in the transportation of fats, in the form of Acyl-CoA, across the mitochondrial membrane so they may be oxidized to generate energy. L-carnitine is available as a dietary supplement. Formed from the essential amino acids lysine and methionine. carotid artery-This artery is located in the neck. It is commonly used for palpating the pulse rate. Note: it is generally considered safest to monitor the pulse at the radial artery when monitoring the pulse of someone other than one's self. cartilage-The dense connective tissue that covers the joint surfaces of the bones; The area where bones meet this smooth, semi-opaque material provides a "frictionless" surface for the joint. catabolism-The breaking down of body tissue, including all processes in which complex substances are progressively broken down into simpler ones; Example, the catabolism of protein in muscle tissue into component amino acids, which occurs in intense training; Both anabolism and catabolism usually involve the release of energy, and together constitute metabolism.

cell membrane-The enveloping capsule of a cell, composed primarily of a lipid bilayer, but including carbohydrates and proteins in addition to the fats and cholesterol that make up the lipid bilayer.

cellulite-Subcutaneous fat (fat stored beneath the skin); although no different from other fat, it has a dimpled appearance caused by the structure of skin fibers covering it.

Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)-The CDC, composed of 11 Centers, Institutes and Offices, aims to promote health and quality of life by preventing and controlling disease, injury and disability.

cerebrovascular accident (CVA)-Damage to the brain, often resulting in a loss of function, from impaired blood supply to part of the brain; more commonly known as a stroke.

certification-The act of attesting that an individual or organization has met a specific set of standards; Fitness certifications are established by organizations within the fitness industry. cervical curve-Curve in the rear neck formed by the seven vertebrae found between the base of the skull to the base of the neck; The cervical curve is slightly concave.

cervical vertebra-One of seven vertebrae found between the base of the skull and the base of the neck.

cholesterol (dietary)-Cholesterol is not a fat, but rather a lipid, which is a classification of molecules that include fats. Cholesterol is vital to life and is found in all cell membranes. It is necessary for the production of bile acids and steroid hormones. Dietary cholesterol is found only in animal foods. Abundant in organ meats and egg yolks, cholesterol is also contained in meats and poultry. Vegetable oils and shortenings are cholesterol-free.

cholesterol (serum, or blood)-High blood cholesterol is a risk factor in the development of coronary heart disease. Most of the cholesterol that is found in the blood is manufactured by the body, in the liver, at a rate of about 800 to 1,500 milligrams a day. By comparison, the average American consumes 300 to 450 milligrams daily in foods. Cholesterol is carried by proteins in the body in the form of lipoproteins. The most abundant lipoproteins include low-density (LDL), high-density (HDL), and very-low density lipoproteins (VLDL). LDL seems to be the culprit in coronary heart disease and is popularly known as the "bad cholesterol." By contrast, HDL is increasingly considered desirable and known as the "good cholesterol."

cholesterol-A type of lipid (fatty substance) that builds inside tissues; The body produces cholesterol, or it is obtained form eating animal products. The total cholesterol is not as important as the ratio of low-density lipoproteins, LDLs to high-density lipoproteins, HDLs. The recommended ratio is below 5 to 1. Cholesterol accumulation in the arteries due to excess saturated fats in the diet and lack of exercise leads to atherosclerosis.

chondromalacia-The wearing away or softening of articular cartilage, usually occurring in the back of the kneecap; A cracking sound in the knee or grating feeling is typical of chondromalacia.

chromosome-Thread-like components in the cell that contain DNA. They make proteins. Genes are carried on the chromosomes.

chronic disuse-Any disease state that persists over a long period of time.

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)-A disease process or condition, such as asthma, bronchitis or emphysema, in which the ability of the lungs to perform ventilation properly is decreased (there is chronic obstruction of air flow); see also asthma, bronchitis and emphysema.

chronic-Descriptive of a condition that persists over a long period of time; opposite of acute.

circuit training-A form of training that takes the participant through a series of exercise stations, sometimes with brief rest intervals in between; can emphasize muscular endurance, aerobic conditioning, muscular strength, or a combination of all three.

circumduction-The circular movement of a limb; a combination of flexion, abduction, extension and adduction movements.

clinical trials-Clinical trials undertake experimental study of human subjects. Trials may attempt to determine whether the finds of basic research are applicable to humans, or to confirm the results of epidemiological research. Studies may be small, with a limited number of participants, or they may be large intervention trials that seek to discover the outcome of treatments on entire populations. The "gold standard" clinical trials are double-blind, placebo-controlled studies which employ random assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups unknown to the subject or the researcher.

collagen-The main constituent of connective tissue, such as ligaments, tendons and muscles.

complete proteins-Foods that contain all essential amino acids; Most meats and dairy products are considered complete protein foods.

concentric (contraction/action)-A muscle develops enough force to overcome a resistance, thus shortening the muscle and creating a movement in the direction of the pull; a shortening of the muscle due to a contraction.

conduction-Means of heat transfer through direct contact; Heat transfers from the body to another object through physical contact.

condyloid joint-Bi-axial joint with movement ability that includes flexion, extension, abduction, adduction and circumduction; considered a partial ball-and-socket joint; also referred to as an ellipsoid joint; This joint appears similar to the ball and socket joint except it is smaller and more oval shaped; Example, the wrist joint.

confounding variable or confounding factor-A "hidden" variable that may cause an association which the researcher attributes to other variables.

connective tissue-The tissue that binds together and supports various structures of the body; Examples, ligaments, tendons, and fascia.

Continuing Survey of Food Intake of Individuals (CSFII) -A part of the National Nutrition Monitoring System which was the first nationwide dietary intake survey designed to be conducted annually. The survey is conducted by the USDA.

continuous training-Conditioning exercise, such as walking, jogging, cycling or aerobic dancing, in which the prescribed intensity is maintained continuously between 50 and 85 percent of maximal oxygen consumption (functional capacity) and for a prolonged period of time.

contraction-The shortening or tightening of a muscle; The two phases of contraction include the concentric (shortening) phase and the eccentric (lengthening) phase. contra-indicated (movements)-Movements that present a very high risk of injury and that should normally be avoided.

control group-The group of subjects in a study to whom a comparison is made in order to determine whether an observation or treatment has an effect. In an experimental study it is the group that does not receive a treatment. Subjects are as similar as possible to those in the test or treatment group.

controlled experiment-In this type of research, study subjects (whether animal or human) are selected according to relevant characteristics, and then randomly assigned to either an experimental group, or a control group. Random assignment ensures that factors known as variables, which may affect the outcome of the study, are distributed equally among the groups and therefore could not lead to differences in the effect of the treatment under study. The experimental group is then given a treatment (sometimes called an intervention), and the results are compared to the control group, which does not receive treatment. A placebo, or false treatment, may be administered to the control group. With all other variables controlled, differences between the experimental and control groups may be attributed to the treatment under study. convection-Means of heat transfer through the movement of air or other particles in a medium; similar to the effect of a fan blowing on body; a means of eliminating heat.

cool-down-The tapering-off period of very light activity at the end of a vigorous workout; this slowly cools the body down to a nearly normal core temperature.

core temperature-The temperature of vital internal organs.

coronary artery disease (CAD)-The major form of cardiovascular disease; almost always the result of atherosclerosis; also called coronary heart disease (CHD).

coronary heart disease (CHD)-See coronary artery disease (CAD).

coronary-Of, or relating to, the heart; Coronary arrest is a term for a heart attack; see myocardial infarction.

correlation-An association, or when one phenomenon is found to be accompanied by another. A correlation does not prove cause and effect. Correlation may also be defined statistically.

CP-Creatine phosphate, a high energy molecule used by the muscles to regenerate stored ATP; see also creatine phosphate.

creatine monohydrate - A hydrated, crystallized form of creatine that is used as a supplement to raise stored creatine levels within the muscles.

creatine monohydrate-Supplement that is composed of creatine bound to one molecule of water; thought to increase recovery during intense training by providing a somewhat elevated level of creatine phosphate stores in muscles; see also creatine phosphate or CP.

creatine phosphate (CP)-A high energy phosphate molecule that stores phosphates to assist in the maintain of ATP during levels of increase work. Also known as phosphocreatine (PCR)caffeine-chemical found in coffee, black tea, and cola drinks with an ability to stimulate the nervous system; In small amounts, it can create mental alertness and has been shown to increase endurance capacity. In larger amounts, it can cause nervousness, anxiety, sleeplessness, and is used medicinally as a diuretic and headache remedy.

creatine phosphate (CP)-A high-energy phosphate molecule that is stored in cells and can be used to immediately resynthesize ATP; one of the phosphagens.

creatine phosphate system-System of transfer of chemical energy for resynthesis of ATP supplied rapidly and without oxygen from the breakdown of creatine phosphate (CP); also called ATP-CP system.

cross training-The incorporation of various modalities of exercise; Cross training reduces stress on any one structure, provides variety and can increase exercise adherence. cross-bridges-Projections of myosin molecules that link with actin filaments to create a grabbing, pulling effect, resulting in contraction.

cross-bridging-Term used to refer to the process of the myosin head attaching to the actin filament during muscular contraction.

crunch(-es)-Abdominal exercise used to isolate the abdominals while, at the same time, eliminates unwanted action from the iliopsoas muscles (hip flexors) and reduces the risk of stress on the lower back; preferred method of abdominal training over sit-ups.

cryotherapy-The use of cold therapy for treatment of injury; Sprains, tears, twists, bruises and bleeding under the skin respond favorably to cryotherapy; suggested use: repeated applications for 24-48 hours or until external swelling is gone.

cutting-up-Slang term referring to the process of reducing bodyfat and water retention to increase muscular definition.

cyanosis-A bluish discoloration, especially of the skin and mucous membranes, due to reduced hemoglobin in the blood.

Dd

daily log-A diary of daily activity or eating patterns.

deep-Anatomical term meaning internal; located further beneath the body surface than the superficial structures. defibrillation-Stopping of atrial or ventricular fibrillation (rapid, randomized contractions of the myocardium), by the use of drugs or mechanical means, often by electroshock.

dehydration-Condition of having a less than optimal level of body water.

dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)-An androgenic hormone which decreases in level with age.

delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS)-Muscle soreness that occurs 24 to 48 hours after intense exercise; typically associated with eccentric muscle contractions, and thought to be the result of microscopic tears in muscle or connective tissue.

delts-Slang term referring to the deltoid muscles.

dental caries-Popularly known as cavities, dental caries occur when bacteria in the mouth feed on fermentable carbohydrates and produce acids that dissolve tooth enamel. Various conditions affect this process, such as heredity and the composition and flow of saliva. Any fermentable carbohydrate (starches and sugars) can serve as food for cavity-causing bacteria. The amount of carbohydrate is not as important as how often these foods are eaten and how long they stay in the mouth. Widespread use of fluoride in water supplies and oral health products is credited with the dramatic decline in dental caries among children and adults alike over the past 20 years.

dextrose-A monosaccharide, which is a major part of corn syrup and honey.

diabetes-Diabetes is the name for a group of medical disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels. Normally when people eat, food is digested and much of it is converted to glucose -- a simple sugar -- which the body uses for energy. The blood carries the glucose to cells where it is absorbed with the help of the hormone insulin. For those with diabetes, however, the body does not make enough insulin, or cannot properly use the insulin it does make. Without insulin, glucose accumulates in the blood rather than moving into the cells. High blood sugar levels result.

Diabetes mellitus-A disease of carbohydrate metabolism in which an absolute or relative deficiency of insulin results in an inability to metabolize carbohydrates normally; may require insulin injections; Exercise may influence a diabetic's need to inject insulin.

diastole-The relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle; the resting phase of the heartbeat, during which blood fills the ventricles.

diastolic blood pressure-The amount of pressure maintained in the arteries between heart beats, as the heart relaxes and fills; The National High Blood Pressure Education Program recommends that anyone with a diastolic pressure of 105 or greater should be treated with drug therapy. Persons with readings of 90-104 should be individually treated as needed by a physician.

distal-Anatomical term meaning farthest away from the point of attachment or body's midline; Example: the foot is distal to the knee.

diuretic-Medication that produces an increase in the volume of urine and sodium (salt) that is excreted; sometimes used to reduce water weight and volume in the body; Use of diuretics by athletes can be very unsafe and is not recommended.

diverticulitis - An inflammation of pouches in the walls of the intestinal tract.

DNA-Deoxyribonucleic acid. This is the molecule that carries the genetic information for most living systems. The DNA molecule consists of four bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine) and a sugar-phosphate backbone, arranged in two connected strands to form its characteristic double-helix.

dorsal-The backside.

dorsiflexion-Bending backward of the hand or foot; opposite of plantarflexion.

double-blind, placebo-controlled study-In a double-blind, placebo controlled study, neither the researchers nor the participants in the study are aware of which subjects receive the treatment under study and which subjects receive the placebo until after the study is completed. The study design is intended to remove bias on the part of both researcher and study subject.

DRI- Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) is a generic term used to refer to group of reference values designed to reflect the latest understanding about nutrient requirements based on optimizing health in individuals and groups. DRI reference values include: EAR, RDA, AI, and UL.

DRV- The second set of numbers you find on the food label are for nutrients and food components that traditionally do not have an RDA, such as fat and fiber, but that do have an important relationship with health. These values are referred to as Daily Reference Values (DRVs).

dumbbell-Free-weight used for exercising, consisting of rigid handle about 14" long, sometimes with detachable metal discs at each end.

duration-Length of time one works or exercises; Duration is one way of increasing resistance to a muscle or system to improve its function.

dynamic constant-resistance-Strength training exercises and/or equipment that provide a constant resistance throughout the movement range.

dynamic flexibility-The range of motion about a joint when speed is involved during physical performance; strength, power, neuromuscular coordination and tissue resistance are all factors.

dynamic variable-resistance (isokinetic)-Strength training exercises and/or equipment that automatically vary the resistance throughout the movement range; see also accommodative resistance.

dyspnea index-An index which measures shortness of breath for calculating exertion levels; The dyspnea index is useful for people with lung disorders and those on heart-rate depressant drugs.

dyspnea-Shortness of breath or difficult breathing; the subjective feeling of being out of breath; caused by heart or lung disorders, strenuous activity, high anxiety or stress. Ee

EAR- The Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is the intake value that is estimated to meet the requirement defined by a specified indicator of adequacy in 50 percent of an age- and gender-specific group. At this level of intake, the remaining 50 percent of the specified group would not have its needs met. This figure is to be used as the basis for developing the RDA.

E. coli: O157:H7- The bacteria Escherichia coli: O157:H7 is a type of E. coli associated with foodborne illness. Healthy cattle and humans can carry the bacteria. It can be transferred from animal to animal and animal to human, and from animal to human on food. Transmission from person to person through close contact is a potential problem, especially among young children in daycare.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)- The EPA's mission is to protect human health and safeguard the natural environment - air, water and land - upon which life depends. Through regulation, EPA tries to ensure the human population and the environment are protected from environmental risks and exposures.

epidemiology- The study of distribution and determinants of diseases or other health outcomes in human populations. It seeks to expose potential associations between aspects of health (such as cancer, heart disease, etc.) and diet, lifestyle, habits or other factors within populations. Epidemiological studies may suggest relationships between two factors, but do not provide the basis for conclusions about cause and effect. Possible associations inferred from epidemiological research can turn out to be coincidental.

essentia- Nutrient that can not be manufactured by the body and must be consumed in food.

essential amino acid- Amino acids can not be manufactured in sufficient quantities in the body without being consumed in the diet. Essential amino acids include: tryptophan, valine, threonine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, and methionine.

essential fatty acid- Fatty acid that can not be generated by other fatty acids in the body. The essential fatty acids include linoleic, linolenic, and arachadonic acids.

etiology- The study of the causes of disease.

experimental group- The group of subjects in an experimental study which receives a treatment.

eccentric contraction (action)-A controlled lengthening of the muscle during its contraction; the resistance overcomes the muscular force and the muscle lengthens.

ectomorph-A thin body type; low fat content.

edema-Swelling due to abnormal accumulation of fluid in tissues or cavities.

ejection fraction-The percentage of the total volume of blood that is pumped out of the left ventricle during contraction of the heart.

elasticity-The ability of a tissue or other material to return to its original size or shape after stretching or elongation.

electrolytes-The minerals sodium, potassium and chlorine, which are present in the body as electrically charged particles called ions; Electrolytes are molecules that dissociate into cations or anions when fused or in solution, thus capable of conducting electricity; see ion.

Electron Transport System/Chain (ETS or ETC)-Process by which electrons are transferred between high energy intermediates to generate additional ATP in the presence of oxygen; occurs after the Kreb's cycle in the mitochondria.

emergency medical services (EMS) system-A local system for obtaining emergency assistance from the police, fire department or ambulance service; In the United States, most cities have a 911 telephone number that will automatically set the EMS system in motion.

empathy-Understanding another person's point of view in a manner that still allows objective reasoning.

emphysema-Chronic lung disease characterized by loss of air sacs resulting in a decreased ability to exchange gases; carbon dioxide levels are increased and oxygen levels are decreased, causing rapid breathing and dyspnea.

empty calories-Calories obtained from foods high in sugar and fat without significant nutritional value (vitamins and minerals).

endocrine-Pertaining to a gland that secretes directly into the bloodstream; the opposite of exocrine.

endocrine glands-Organs which secrete hormones into the blood or lymph systems to regulate or influence general chemical changes in the body or the activities of other organs; Major endocrine glands are the thyroid, adrenal, pituitary, parathyroid, pancreas, ovaries and testicles.

endomorph-A person whose body build is soft and round, with fat throughout the body; compare ectomorph and mesomorph.

endorphins-A natural chemical released by the body during exercise; Endorphins help relieve pain and leave the participant with a "natural high".

energy balance-The balance between energy taken in and energy used. energy balance theory-The theory that body weight will stay the same when caloric intake equals caloric expenditure, and that a positive or negative energy balance will cause weight gain or weight loss.

enzymes-Proteins that speed specific chemical reactions. epiphyseal cartilage-The place where growth occurs at the ends of the bones; If epiphyseal cartilage is damaged during growth, the bone may not reach its full potential; this is especially important when working with adolescents.

ergogenic aids-Substances thought to enhance energy availability or utilization to improve endurance or strength.

essential amino acids-Eight of the 23 different amino acids needed to make proteins in adults; called essential because they must be obtained from the diet, since they cannot be manufactured by the body.

essential fat-Fat that cannot be produced by the body and must be supplied by the diet; Linoleic acid, linolenic acid, and arachidonic acid are essential fats.

essential fatty acids-See essential fat.

essential nutrient-A nutrient that must be supplied by the diet because it cannot be produced in sufficient quantities by the body.

eumenorrheic-Having normal menstruation.

eversion-Turning outward.

exercise physiologist-A scientist who conducts controlled investigations of responses and adaptations to muscular activity utilizing human subjects or animals within a clinical, research, or academic setting; Exercise physiologists are degreed and certified in exercise physiology or a related field.

exercise physiology-The study of life processes as they relate to exercise.

exercise prescription-A physician's recommendations or referral for exercise; the recommended volume of exercise including frequency, intensity, duration, and type of exercise.

exercise-induced asthma-Intermittent labored breathing precipitated by exertion during exercise; see also asthma.

exertional headaches-Pain triggered by a variety of exercise activities ranging from weightlifting to jogging, and including sexual intercourse.

extension-To straighten; movement of a body part away from the body; to increase the angle at a joint; Example, triceps extension.

external rotation-Rotary motion away from the midline of the body.

Ff

5 A Day-Refers to the dietary recommendation to consume five servings of fruits and vegetables every day. The tagline, 5 A Day, became a promotional message in campaigns to increase fruits and vegetable consumption.

failure-See training to failure.

Fartlek training-Training method that alternates fast and slow activity over varied terrain, utilizing perceived exertion.

fascia-Sheet or band of fibrous tissue that lies deep to the skin or forms an attachment for muscles and organs and covering individual muscles.

fast-twitch (Type II) fiber-Large muscle fiber characterized by its fast speed of contraction; utilized in high intensity, short duration activities.

Fat soluble vitamins-Vitamins soluble in fat, not water. Fat soluble vitamins can be stored in the fat within the body. Therefore, fat soluble vitamins pose the greatest threat of reaching toxic levels from Mega-dosing. Each of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K has a distinct and separate physiologic role. Vitamins A and E have antioxidant properties to depress the effects of metabolic byproducts called free radicals, which are thought to cause degenerative changes related to aging.

fat soluble-Able to be dissolved in fat; relating to vitamins, those that are stored in the body fat, principally in the liver: vitamins A, D, E and K.

fat utilization training zone (theoretical)-A theoretical range just prior to the onset of blood lactate which is thought to support the highest percentage of fat utilization prior to the point where the body can no longer perform aerobic exercise.

fat-An essential nutrient that provides energy, energy storage, insulation and contour to the body; 1 gram fat = 9 kcals; Fat deposits surround and protect organs such as the kidneys, heart and liver. Fats are the primary substances of adipose tissue. A layer of fat beneath the skin, known as subcutaneous fat, insulates the body from environmental temperature changes thereby preserving body heat.

fat-free mass-That part of the body composition that represents everything but fat: blood, bones, connective tissue, organs and muscle; the same as lean body mass; also called fat-free weight.

fat-free weight-See fat-free mass.

fatigue-State of decreased capacity for work due to previous workload; working a muscle to fatigue refers to working to "failure"; the inability to perform another repetition in good form.

fats (dietary fats)-Fats are referred to in the plural because there is no one type of fat. Fats are composed of the same three elements as carbohydrates -- carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, However, fats have relatively more carbon and hydrogen and less oxygen, thus supplying a higher fuel value of nine calories per gram (versus four calories per gram from carbohydrates and protein). One molecule of fat can be broken down into three molecules of fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol. Thus, stored fats are known chemically as triglycerides. Fats are a vital nutrient in a healthy diet. Fats supply essential fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, which is especially important to childhood growth. Fat helps maintain healthy skin, regulate cholesterol metabolism and is a precursor of prostaglandins, hormone-like substances that regulate some body processes. Dietary fat is needed to carry fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K and to aid in their absorption from the intestine.

fats-Fat breaks down to fatty acids and glycerol. Fat is stored energy. It cushions organs and body parts and insulates the body. We need a percentage of body fat. fatty acid-Fatty acids are generally classified as saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated. These terms refer to the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms of the fat molecule. In general, fats that contain a majority of saturated fatty acids are solid at room temperature, although some solid vegetable shortenings are up to 75 percent unsaturated. Fats containing mostly unsaturated fatty acids are usually liquid at room temperature and are called oils. Also, see "fats", or "hydrogenation."

fatty acid-The building block of fats; an important nutrient for the production of energy during prolonged, low-intensity exercise; Free fatty acids circulate in the blood and are transported across the mitochondrial membrane for use for energy.

feedback loops-Chains of reactions where the resulting product influences the rate of the reaction; Positive feedback loops increase the rate of reactions whereas negative feedback loops decrease the rate of reactions.

feedback-Verbal or nonverbal information about current behavior that can be used to improve future performance.

fiber-Dietary fiber generally refers to parts of fruits, vegetables, grains, nuts and legumes that can't be digested by humans. Meats and dairy products do not contain fiber. Studies indicate that high-fiber diets can reduce the risks of heart disease and certain types of cancer. There are two basic types of fiber - insoluble and soluble. Soluble fiber in cereals, oatmeal, beans and other foods has been found to lower blood cholesterol. Insoluble fiber in cauliflower, cabbage and other vegetables and fruits helps move foods through the stomach and intestine, thereby decreasing the risk of cancers of the colon and rectum.

flex-Contracting or tightening a muscle (or muscles) isometrically; also refers to joint movement; see flexion.

flexibility-The range of movement in a joint and corresponding muscle groups; Flexibility training increases the length and elasticity of the muscles.

flexion-Bending of a limb at a joint; decreasing the angle of the joint.

flush-Cleansing a muscle of metabolic toxins by increasing the blood supply to it through exertion.

folic acid-Folic acid, folate, folacin, all form a group of compounds functionally involved in amino acid metabolism and nucleic acid synthesis. Good dietary sources of folate include leafy, dark green vegetables, legumes, citrus fruits and juices, peanuts, whole grains and fortified breakfast cereals. Recent studies show, if all women of childbearing age consumed sufficient folic acid (either through diet or supplements), 50 to 70 percent of birth defects of the brain and spinal cord could be prevented, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC.) Folic acid is critical from conception through the first four to six weeks of pregnancy when the neural tube is formed. This means adequate diet or supplement use should begin before pregnancy occurs. Recent research findings also show low blood folate levels can be associated with elevated plasma homocysteine and increased risk of coronary heart disease.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-The Food and Drug Administration is part of the Public Health Service of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. It is the regulatory agency responsible for ensuring the safety and wholesomeness of all foods sold in interstate commerce except meat, poultry and eggs (which are under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of Agriculture). FDA develops standards for the composition, quality, nutrition, safety and labeling of foods including food and color additives. It conducts research to improve detection and prevention of contamination. It collects and interprets data on nutrition, food additives and pesticide residues. The agency also inspects food plants, imported food products and feed mills that make feeds containing medications or nutritional supplements that are destined for human consumption. And it regulates radiation-emitting products such as microwave ovens. FDA also enforces pesticide tolerances established by the Environmental Protection Agency for all domestically produced and imported foods, except for foods under USDA jurisdiction.

Food and Nutrition Board (FNB)- The U.S. Food and Nutrition Board was established in 1940 under the National Academy of Sciences to study issues of importance to the U.S. pertaining to: the safety and adequacy of the nation's food supply, establishing principles and guidelines for adequate nutrition, rendering authoritative judgment on the relationships among food intake, nutrition, and health at the request of various agencies.

Food Guide Pyramid-a graphic design used to communicate the recommended daily food choices contained in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans; The information presented in the Food Guide Pyramid was developed and promoted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. It was published in 1992 by the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture and the U.S. Dept. of Health & Human Services.

food irradiation-The exposure of food to sufficient radiant energy (gamma rays, x-rays and electron beams) to destroy microorganisms and insects. Irradiation is used in food production and processing to promote food safety.

foodborne disease-Disease, usually gastrointestinal, caused by organisms or their toxins carried in ingested food. Also commonly known as "food poisoning."

forced repetitions or reps-A weight training system where assistance is given by a spotter to perform additional repetitions of an exercise when muscles can no longer complete the positive contraction on their own.

form-Manner in which a particular exercise is performed.

free radicals-Free radicals are highly reactive molecules which contain an odd number of electrons and target the body's tissues; thought to be involved in generation of some cancers.

frequency-How often a person exercises.

frontal plane-An imaginary longitudinal section that divides the body into anterior and posterior halves; lies at a right angle to the sagittal plane.

fructose-Fructose is a monosaccharide found naturally in fruits, as an added sugar in a crystalline form and as a component of high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS).

fruit-Fruit is the usually edible reproductive body of a seed plant, especially one having a sweet pulp associated with the seed. fulcrum-The support on which a lever rotates when moving or lifting something.

functional capacity-The maximum physical performance represented by maximal oxygen consumption.

functional foods-Foods that may provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Examples include tomatoes with lycopene, thought to help prevent the incidence of prostate and cervical cancers; fiber in wheat bran and sulfur compounds in garlic also believed to prevent cancer.

Gg

gait-The manner or style of walking.

gastronomy-The study and appreciation of good food and good eating, and a culture's culinary customs, style and lore. Any interest or study of culinary pursuits as relates essentially to the kitchen and cookery, and to the higher levels of education, training and achievement of the chef apprentice or professional chef.

general liability insurance-Insurance covering the carrier for bodily injury or property damage resulting from general negligence.

generalizabilit-The extent to which the results of a study are able to be applied to the general population of people that is comparable to the population studied.

genome-The total hereditary material of a cell, containing the entire chromosomal set found in each nucleus of a given species.

glucagon-Hormone responsible for increasing the rate of gluconeogenesis when blood sugar becomes low; Glucagon regulates blood sugar levels with insulin which inhibits glucagon and helps store sugar when blood sugar becomes too high.

gluconeogenesi-The formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate pre-cursors, such as lactate, pyruvate, glycerol, and the carbon skeletons of amino acids.

glucose-A sugar, most commonly in the form of dextroglucose, that occurs naturally, has about half the sweetening power of regular sugar and does not crystallize easily. Glucose comes from grape juice, honey and certain vegetables, among other things. Glucose is the simple sugar utilized in the body for energy and storage of energy in the form of carbohydrates.

glucose-Simple sugar; the form in which all carbohydrates are used as the body's principal energy source; transported in the blood and metabolized in the tissues.

glutamate-Glutamate is an amino acid. It is necessary for metabolism and brain function, and is manufactured by the body. Glutamate is found in virtually every protein food we eat. In food, there is "bound" glutamate and "free" glutamate. Glutamate serves to enhance flavors in foods when it is in its free form and not bound to other amino acids in protein. Some foods have greater quantities of glutamate than others. Foods that are rich in glutamate include tomatoes, mushrooms, parmesan cheese, milk and mackerel.

gluteals-Abbreviation for gluteus maximus, medius and minimus; the hip extensor muscles; also called buttocks or glutes.

glutes-Slang for gluteals; see gluteals.

glycemic index-A rating scale which measures the increase in blood sugar and the rise in insulin levels following the consumption of a given food.

glycerol-A colorless, odorless, syrupy liquid - chemically, an alcohol - that is obtained from fats and oils and used to retain moisture and add sweetness to foods; Glycerol forms the backbone to which fatty acids attach to form triglycerides. Glycerol has been shown to increase water absorption and is sometimes used in small quantities to assist in hydration prior to long endurance events.

glycogen-The storage form of carbohydrate in the muscles and the blood, composed of chains of glucose molecules.

glycogenolysis-The breakdown of glycogen in order to generate glucose which can enter glycolysis and generate ATP for energy.

glycolysis-The breakdown of glucose to generate ATP anaerobically and to generate pyruvate that can further go on to generate additional ATP through aerobic pathways or be converted to lactate (under anaerobic conditions) to allow the continuation of glycolysis.

glycolysis-The process by which glucose is broken down to form pyruvate; Pyruvate is then converted to either lactic acid when oxygen is not present in sufficient quantities, or to acetyl CoA which breaks down to generate additional ATP through the Kreb's cycle and Electron Transport System.

Golgi tendon organ (GTO)-Sensory organ (proprioceptors) within a tendon that, when stimulated, causes an inhibition of the entire muscle group to protect against damage from stretching the muscle.

graded exercise test (GXT)-A treadmill or cycle-ergometer test that measures or estimates maximum aerobic capacity by gradually increasing the intensity until a person has reached a maximal level or voluntary exhaustion.

grains-Grains are the seeds or fruits of various food plants including cereal grasses. The examples of wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye and rice provide a partial list. Grain foods include foods such as bread, cereals, rice and pasta.

gram (g)-Approximately 1/5 of a level teaspoon.

grand mal seizure-Major motor seizure characterized by violent and uncontrollable muscle contractions. GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe)-GRAS is the regulatory status of food ingredients not evaluated by the FDA prescribed testing procedure. It also includes common food ingredients that were already in use when the 1959 Food Additives Amendment to the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act was enacted.

growth hormone (GH)-A hormone that regulates cell division and protein synthesis necessary for normal growth; The growth hormone exerts a direct effect on protein, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, and controls the rate of skeletal, connective (collagenous) tissue and visceral growth.

Hh

hams-Slang for hamstring muscles..

health related physical fitness-Components of physical fitness that are associated with some aspect of health; these important factors include cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular endurance, muscular strength, body composition, and joint flexibility.

health-The absence of disease or injury along with physical, mental, and social well-being.

heart attack-See myocardial infarction.

heart rate (HR)-Number of times the heart beats in one minute.

heart rate reserve (HRR)-The result of subtracting the resting heart rate from the maximal heart rate; represents the working heart-rate range between rest and maximal heart rate within which all activity occurs; used in the Karvonen method of calculating target heart rates.

heart-Muscular organ approximately the size of a fist which contains four chambers which pumps blood through the body. heat cramps-Painful cramps occurring in muscles caused from laboring in hot conditions in which excessive amounts of electrolytes are lost in the sweat, causing the heat cramps.

heat exhaustion-The most common heat related illness; usually the result of intense exercise in a hot, humid environment and characterized by profuse sweating, which results in fluid and electrolyte loss, a drop in blood pressure, light-headedness, nausea, vomiting, decreased coordination and often syncope (fainting).

heat stroke-Exertional heat stroke is caused when the body generates more heat through muscle activity than it can dissipate, which can lead to permanent damage or death. Symptoms of heat stroke include red dry skin, cessation of perspiration, fast strong pulse, dizziness or fainting. A true medical emergency, heat stroke can be prevented by working out at a cooler time, dressing lightly and drinking plenty of water before, during and after exercising.

hemoglobin-Protein that holds and transports oxygen within the blood consisting of an iron-containing pigment called heme and a simple protein, globin.

hernia-Protrusion or projection of part of an organ through the wall of the cavity that normally contains it; Example, protrusion of the abdominal contents into the groin (inguinal hernia) or through the abdominal wall (abdominal hernia).

herniated disc-A condition in which the disc between two vertebrae of the spine bulges backward, often compressing a nerve root and compromising its function.

high energy phosphates-Molecules within the body that provide the energy to drive chemical reactions within the body; Example, ATP.

high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-A type of cholesterol that has scavenger characteristics in removing some fats, making it beneficial; Exercise can increase the production of HDL.

high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS)-HFCS are formulations generally containing 42 percent, 55 percent or 90 percent fructose (the remaining carbohydrate being primarily glucose) depending on the product application. HCFS are used in products such as soft drinks or cake mixes.

homeostasis-The tendency toward stability and balance in normal body states.

hormones-Chemical substances which originate in an organ, gland, or body part, and are conveyed by the blood to affect functions in other parts of the body.

human growth hormone (HGH)-Hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland in response to various stressful stimuli such as heat, starvation and intense physical stress (e.g., exercise); The principle functions of HGH are to stimulate anabolism and to mobilize stored fat (triglycerides) for energy, thus sparing muscle glycogen.

hydrogenation-Hydrogenation is the process of adding hydrogen molecules directly to an unsaturated fatty acid from sources such as vegetable oils to convert it to a semi-solid form such as margarine or shortening. Hydrogenation contributes important textural properties to food. The degree of hydrogenation influences the firmness and spreadability of margarines, flakiness of pie crust and the creaminess of puddings. Hydrogenated oils are sometimes used in place of other fats with higher proportions of saturated fatty acids such as butter or lard. Hydrogenation may lead to the formation of trans fatty acids.

hydrostatic weighing-A body composition analysis technique that consists of an underwater test used to measure body fat and lean body mass percentages; based on the relative density of fat and lean tissue.

hypercholesterolemia-A condition characterized by having elevated cholesterol in the blood.

hyperextension-Extreme or excessive extension of a joint beyond the normal range of motion.

hyperglycemia-A condition characterized by an abnormally high content of glucose in the blood.

hyperlipidemia-A condition characterized by an excess of lipids in the blood.

hyperplasia-An increase in cell growth through splitting of cells.

hypertension-Hypertension is the persistently elevated arterial blood pressure. It is the most common public health problem in developed countries. Emphasis on lifestyle modifications has given diet a prominent role for both the primary prevention and management of hypertension. Hypertension is considered as resting blood pressure levels over 140/90.

hypertension-A condition characterized by high blood pressure, or the elevation of blood pressure above 140/90 mmHg.

hyperthermia-A condition characterized by abnormally high body temperature.

hypertrophy-An increase in the cross-sectional size of a muscle in response to progressive resistance (strength) training.

hyperventilation-A condition characterized by a greater-than-normal rate of breathing that results in an abnormal loss of carbon dioxide from the blood; dizziness may occur.

hypoglycemia-A condition characterized by a deficiency of sugar in the blood commonly caused by too much insulin, too little glucose, or too much exercise in the insulin-dependent diabetic.

hypokalemia-A condition characterized by a deficiency of potassium in the blood.

hypokinesis-A condition characterized by a lack of activity or energy.

hypothermia-A condition characterized by an abnormally low body temperature.

Ii

in the zone-Slang, state of being able to perform much better than normally expected. incidence-The number of new cases of a disease during a given period of time in a defined population.

incomplete proteins-Foods that do not contain all the essential amino acids.

independent contractors-Individuals who conduct business independently on a contract basis and are not employees of an organization or business.

inferior-Anatomical term meaning situated below or nearer the soles of the feet in relation to a specific reference point; opposite of superior.

informed consent-Voluntary acknowledgment of the purpose, procedures and specific risks of an activity in which one intends to engage.

innervation-Nerve root extended from a particular vertebrae to attach to a given muscle or part of the body.

insertion-Attachment point of a muscle that is more distal or inferior; attachment point of a muscle onto the more moveable structure

insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM)-A form of diabetes caused by the destruction of the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, which leads to little or no insulin secretion; generally develops in childhood and requires regular insulin injections.

intense sweeteners-See low-calorie sweeteners.

intensity-The physiological stress on the body during exercise; indicates how hard the body should be working to achieve a training effect; workload; Example, percent 1RM or percent maximal heart rate.

internal rotation-Rotary motion toward the midline of the body; Example, internally rotating the hip to point the knees and toes inward.

International Food Information Council (IFIC)-A non-profit association supported by food, beverage, and agricultural companies to assist the media, educators, health professionals, and scientists effectively communicate science-based information on health, nutrition, and food safety.

interval training-Exercise performed in an intermittent manner using a pre-established spacing of work and rest intervals; By changing the duration of work and rest intervals, a specific energy transfer system can be emphasized and overloaded; see aerobic intervals, aerobic threshold intervals and anaerobic intervals.

inversion-Turning inward.

ischemia-Insufficient blood flow to some part of the body, resulting in decreased oxygen availability.

isokinetic-Refers to a type of contraction where the speed of movement is fixed and the resistance varies in accordance with the muscular force exerted; see accomodative resistance.

isometric-Working a muscle against an immovable object; tension is developed but no mechanical work is performed; contraction of a muscle in which shortening or lengthening is prevented; involves muscular force equal to, but not greater than the resistance.

isotonic-Refers to a type of muscle contraction performed while equal tension is maintained on the muscle, and the length of the muscle is decreased or lengthened.

Jj

jerk-The part of the Olympic lift known as the "clean and jerk," where the lifter drives the barbell from his or her shoulders overhead to a locked position.

joint-Point where two bones come together; articulation.

Kk

Karvonen formula-A mathematical calculation for determining target heart rates: [(220 - age) - (RHR) x (50-85%)] + RHR - THR.

Kegel exercises-Exercises for strengthening the pubococcygeus muscles; Kegel exercises can be especially beneficial for women in the childbearing years.

ketogenic diet-Low-carbohydrate diet designed to generate a state of ketosis.

ketone bodies-Molecules formed under conditions that increase fatty acid levels beyond that which the liver and muscles can utilize to generate energy or convert back into stored triglycerides. Under these conditions acetoacetate is formed, which may convert then convert into one of two other ketone bodies, 3-hydroxybutarate, or acetone. Ketone bodies are typically formed under conditions of glycogen depletion from low-carbohydrate diets or extreme exercise resulting in carbohydrate depletion.

ketone bodies-Formed when fatty acids are oxidized; A low CHO - high protein diet can result in ketosis, the formation of excessive ketone bodies. ketosis-The accumulation of ketone bodies in the body, accompanied by a state of acidosis.

ketosis-A condition characterized by an abnormal increase of ketone bodies in the body; usually the result of a low-carbohydrate diet, fasting or starvation; see ketone bodies.

Kilocalorie-1,000 calories or a "Calorie" which is used as the standard for energy measurement in nutrition.

kinesiology-The study of human movement.

kinesthetic awareness-The ability of individuals to feel where their bodies are in relation to space; a body awareness.

knee wraps-Elastic strips used to wrap knees for better support when performing squats and dead lifts during extremely heavy lifts.

Korotkoff sounds-Five different sounds created by the pulsing of the blood through the brachial artery; Proper distinction of these sounds is necessary to determine blood pressure.

Krebs cycle-Cycle by which high energy intermediates are formed prior to generating ATP through the Electron Transport System.

kyphosis-Abnormal outward curvature of the upper back; Examples, hunchback or Dowager's hump.

kyphosis-lordosis-An increase in the normal inward curve of the low back, combined with an increased outward curve of the thoracic spine.

Ll

lactate-The anaerobic product of glysolysis in animals. Formed under conditions that do not favor aerobic breakdown of pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis.

lactic acid (lactate)-A bi-product of anaerobic energy production known to cause localized muscle fatigue when it accumulates during short-term, high intensity exercise; It is associated with fatigue.

lactic acid system-See anaerobic glycolysis.

lacto-ovo vegetarians-Vegetarians who will eat dairy or eggs.

lactose-A sugar naturally occurring in milk, also known as "milk sugar," that is the least sweet of all natural sugars and used in baby formulas and candies.

lactose intolerance-Lactose intolerance is an inherited inability to properly digest dairy products, due to a deficiency in the amount of the enzyme, lactase in the small intestine. This enzyme is necessary for the hydrolysis of lactose (a disaccharide) into its constituent monosaccharides, glucose and galactose. Symptoms of lactose intolerance, including abdominal cramps, flatulence and frothy diarrhea, can increase with age.

lateral-Anatomical term meaning away from the midline of the body, toward the side.

lats-Slang referring to the latissimus dorsi, the large muscles of the back that are the prime movers for adduction, extension and hyperextension of the shoulder joints.

law of acceleration-Force (F) acting on a body in a given direction is equal to the body's mass (m) multiplied by the body's acceleration (a) in that direction; F = ma, or a = F/m.

law of inertia-The tendency of all objects and matter to remain at rest, or, if moving, to continue moving in the same straight line unless acted on by an outside force; proportional to body mass.

lean body mass-See fat-free mass.

lever-A rigid bar that rotates around a fixed support (fulcrum) in response to an applied force; A lever transmits and modifies force or motion. The bones act as levers in the body.

liability-Legal responsibility.

ligament-A band of non-elastic tough connective tissue connecting the articular ends of the bones; frequently the stabilizing element of a joint.

lipids-Fats or fat-like substances.

lipolysis-The splitting of a fat molecule.

lipoprotein-Vehicle that transports fat throughout the body; made up of protein, fat and cholesterol. locomotion-Movement from one place to another.

longevity-Length of life.

lordosis-A normal curvature of the lower back; this can also refer to an excessive inward curvature (hyperlordosis) or lack of curvature in the lumbar area (hypolordosis); Hyperlordosis predisposes the participant to a higher risk of injury.

low-calorie sweetener-Low-calorie sweeteners are non-nutritive sweeteners, also referred to as intense sweeteners. Low-calorie sweeteners can replace nutritive sweeteners in most foods at a caloric savings of approximately 16 calories per teaspoon. Thus, caloric reduction may be achieved when low-calorie sweetened foods and beverages are substituted for their full-calorie counterparts. Examples of low-calorie sweeteners in use in the U.S. food supply are saccharin, aspartame, and acesulfame K.

low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)-Plasma complex of lipids and proteins that contains relatively more cholesterol and triglycerides and less protein; High LDL levels are associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease.

lumbar curve-Curve which is formed from the 5 vertebrae found in the lower back; this curve is slightly concave; see lordosis.

lycopene-Lycopene is a carotenoid related to the better known beta-carotene. Lycopene gives tomatoes and some other fruits and vegetables their distinctive red color. Nutritionally, it functions as an antioxidant. Research shows lycopene is best absorbed by the body when consumed as tomatoes that have been heat-processed using a small amount of oil. This includes products such as tomato sauce and tomato paste. Also, see functional foods.

lysis-The splitting of a molecule. (Ex. Hydrolysis, glycogenolyis, lipolysis, etc.)

Mm

macronutrient-Substance required in large amounts to sustain life (Carbohydrate, protein, fat, and water).

Mad Cow Disease-See BSE (Bovine spongiform encephalopathy).

maximal graded exercise test-See graded exercise test (GXT).

maximal heart rate (HRmax or MHR)-Maximal number of times an individual's heart beats within one minute; HRmax is determined in part by age and genetics; also referred to as maximum heart rate.

maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max)-The highest volume of oxygen a person can consume during exercise; maximum-aerobic capacity; VO2max is a measure of maximal cardiovascular performance.

maximal oxygen uptake-See maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max).

max-Maximum effort for one repetition of a weight training exercise; also expressed as one's "1-RM" or "one rep max."

medial-Anatomical term meaning situated or occurring in the middle of the body; toward the midline.

mega-dose (Mega-dosing)-A dose of a nutrient that is 10 times or more than the RDA for that nutrient.

megadose-Dose of a substance that is extremely high compared to the needs of the body.

menopause-Cessation of menstruation in the human female, usually occurring between the ages of 48 and 50.

mesomorph-A person whose body shape consists mostly of muscle, bone and connective tissue, with a predisposition to muscular development; compare ectomorph and endomorph.

meta-analysis-A quantitative technique in which the results of several individual studies are pooled to yield overall conclusions.

metabolic equivalents (METS)-A simplified system for classifying physical activities where one MET is equal to the resting oxygen consumption, which is approximately 3.5 milliliters of oxygen per kilogram of body weight per minute (3.5 ml/kg/min).

metabolic pathways-A series of consecutive enzymatic reactions that produce specific products; pathways involved in metabolic processes; Example, the breakdown of glucose, the storing of glycogen, the breakdown of fats, etc.

metabolic rate-The rate at which the body utilizes energy; Exercise raises the metabolic rate.

metabolism-The sum total of all chemical reactions taking place in a living organism; typically broken down into the energy producing and absorbing processes that are occurring in the body; Metabolism describes the energy utilized by the body.

meter-The division of music into measures or bars; Most music for exercise purposes may be counted in increments of 4, 8, 16 or 32.

MET-See metabolic equivalents (METs).

micronutrient-Substance required in small amounts to sustain life (Vitamins and minerals).

minerals-Inorganic substances needed in the diet in small amounts to help regulate bodily functions.

miniscal tear-A tear in the meniscal cartilage (found in the knee); Torn meniscus, a common and painful injury, plagues many athletes and dancers.

mirroring-Imitating another's behavior or attitudes.

mitochondria-Specialized subcellular structures located within body cells that contain oxidative enzymes needed by the cells to metabolize foodstuffs into energy sources; They are the source of energy in the cell and are involved in protein synthesis and lipid metabolism.

mitochrondria-Organelle responsible for aerobically generating energy.

modeling-The process of learning by observing and imitating others' behavior.

monounsaturated fats-A type of unsaturated fat (liquid at room temperature) that has one spot available on the fatty acid for the addition of a hydrogen atom; moderate intake is associated with a lower risk for cardiovascular disease; Example, oleic acid in olive oil; generally considered to be a "healthy" fat.

morbid obesity-This is a state of adiposity or overweight, in which body weight is 100 percent above the ideal and a body mass index of 45 or greater. morbidity-The disease rate; the ratio of sick to well persons in a community.

mortality-The death rate, or ratio of deaths that take place to expected deaths.

motive force-The force that starts or causes a movement.

motor learning effect-Improvement in performance during the initial weeks of strength training due to more efficient motor unit utilization.

motor unit-A motor nerve and all the muscle fibers it stimulates; In the quadriceps muscle, one neuron can activate as many as 1,000 fibers. In the eye, where great precision is required, one nerve cell may control only 3 fibers.

MSG (monosodium glutamate)-MSG is the sodium salt of glutamic acid. Glutamic acid, or glutamate, is one of the most common amino acids found in nature. (see glutamate). In the early part of the century, MSG was extracted from seaweed and other plant sources. Today, MSG is produced in many countries around the world through a fermentation process of molasses from sugar cane or sugar beets, as well as starch and corn sugar.

muscle cramp-Painful involuntary contraction due to overexertion and imbalance of oxygen, minerals and carbon dioxide; Stretch the cramped muscle with one hand and squeeze and release the body of the muscle rhythmically with the other hand. Deep breathing helps to release cramps since it increases oxygen availability.

muscle fiber-A muscle cell.

muscle spindle-The sensory organ within a muscle that is sensitive to stretch and thus protects the muscle from being stretched too far; Muscle spindles cause the muscle to contract instead of allowing it to stretch during rapid stretching.

muscle tear-The tearing of a muscle bundle caused by severe stretching accompanied by acute pain and spasm; A muscle tear is called a strain.

muscle tone-The degree of tension and vigor in a gross muscle; Muscle tone is increased through weight training, which results in a greater number of muscle fibers "firing" while at rest.

muscle-head-Slang term used to describe a person who works out in the gym all the time and has become quite muscular; often used in a derogatory manner.

muscle-pump-Slang term used to describe a feeling of increased size and power in one's muscles.

muscular endurance-The ability to sustain a sub-maximal contraction (isometric) over time, or the ability to perform a maximum number of sub-maximal repetitions (isotonic).

muscular strength-The ability of the muscle to exert force; usually measured with one maximal repetition or with a hand dynamometer.

myocardial infarction (MI) -An interruption of blood supply to the heart; may be caused by blockage of a heart artery caused by atherosclerosis or a blood clot; MI causes tissue damage to the heart muscle. It may begin with a crushing chest pain that moves to the left arm, neck or upper abdomen, and it may seem like indigestion. Signs of MI are rapid, irregular heart rate, low blood pressure and fever. Emergency treatment may require CPR; commonly called a heart attack.

myofibril-The functional units within muscle fibers that cause contractions; The more myofibrilla (plural) a person has, the greater his or her strength.

myoglobin-Protein that holds and stores oxygen within the muscles and tissues.



myosin-Thick contractile protein in a myofibril which overlaps with actin to produce contractions.

myotatic stretch reflex-Muscular reflex created by excessive muscle spindle stimulation; prevents potential tissue damage during periods of rapid muscle stretching.

Nn

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)-A series of surveys that include information from medical history, physical measurements, biochemical evaluation, physical examination and dietary intake of population groups within the United States. The NHANES is conducted by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services approximately every five years.

Nationwide Food Consumption Survey (NFCS)-A survey conducted by the USDA roughly every ten years that monitors the nutrient intake of a cross-section of the U.S. public.

negative (eccentric)-The part of a resistance exercise when the weight is lowered.

negatives-Weight training technique in which the exerciser must obtain assistance to perform a concentric contraction to raise the weight; assistance may be through a spotter(s) as in forced reps or through the breaking of proper training form, as in cheat sets; This type of exercise is extremely damaging to connective tissue and often leads to DOMS.

negligence-Failure of a person to perform as a reasonable and prudent professional would perform under similar circumstances.

neural tube defect-In simple terms, a neural tube defect (NTD) is a malformation of the brain or spinal cord (neurological system) during embryonic development. Infants born with spina bifida, where the spinal cord is exposed, can grow to adulthood but usually suffer from paralysis or other disabilities. Babies born with anencephaly, where most or all of the brain is missing, usually die shortly after birth. These NTDs make up about 5 percent of all U.S. birth defects each year. According to the CDC, the use of sufficient folic acid is enough to eliminate the risk of NTDs. (see folic acid).

non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)-Most common form of diabetes; typically develops in adulthood; is characterized by a reduced sensitivity of the insulin target cells to available insulin and is usually associated with obesity. nutraceuticals-One term used to describe substances in or parts of a food that may be considered to provide medical or health benefits beyond basic nutrition, including disease prevention. Also, see functional foods."

nutrient-Something that nourishes, especially as found in food.

nutrient density-Quantitative analysis of the amount of nutrients versus the amount of calories in a given food; Nutrient-dense foods provide more nutrients than calories.

nutrition-Process by which a living organism takes in and uses food for the purpose of growth and tissue replacement.

Oo

obesity-Definitions vary, but are typically based upon calculations of body mass index (weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared) over 30, or percent body fat over 30.

obliques-Short for external and/or internal obliques; the muscles to either side of the abdominals that rotate and flex the trunk.

one repetition maximum (l-RM)-The amount of resistance that can be moved through the range of motion one time before the muscle is temporarily fatigued and the motion cannot be performed with good form again.

onset of blood lactate (OBLA)-Point at which lactate begins to accumulate faster in the blood than it can be removed; This point is often referred to as a "lactate" or "anaerobic" threshold and is often conserved the point where the body begins to get a high percentage of its energy from sugars as opposed to fats. The point just before the OBLA is often considered a "fat utilization" zone.

opposing muscle group-See antagonist muscle.

organic-Organic defines agricultural products that are grown using cultural, biological and mechanical methods prior to the use of synthetic, non-agricultural substances to control pests, improve soil quality an/or enhance processing. The USDA is currently addressing the issue of organic products, and aims to have official rules for what may be considered organic ready for the 1999 spring planting season. Currently organic defines an agricultural process in which farmers use techniques such as crop rotation, cultivation, mulching, soil enrichment and the "encouragement" of predators and microorganisms which naturally keep pests away. The now widely accepted definition allows farmers to use natural pesticides, but nothing synthetic.

origin-Attachment of a muscle that is more superior or proximal.

orthostatic hvpotension-Drop in blood pressure associated with rising to an erect position.

orthotics-Shoe inserts; can be helpful for persons who pronate (foot rotating inward) or supinate (foot rolling out).

osteoarthritis-Degenerative joint disease occurring chiefly in older persons; characterized by degeneration of the articular cartilage, hypertrophy of the bones, and changes in the synovial membrane.

osteoporosis-Osteoporosis is a skeletal disease in which the bones lose mass and density, the pores in bones enlarge, and the bones generally become fragile. Osteoporosis is four times more common in women, whose bones are naturally thinner and less dense, than in men. Women start losing bone mass and density at an earlier age, and the process is accelerated by menopause, causing osteoporosis to manifest itself between the ages of 50 and 60. Research has shown that in addition to regular exercise, calcium intake during childhood, adolescence and early-adulthood helps build a "bone bank" of calcium stores. While bone length is established by age 20, bone strength and density continue to develop through age 30.

osteoporosis-Thinning of the bones; density diminishes as calcium absorption is reduced; Exercised bones become denser and stronger, as long as dietary calcium is adequate.

outcomes research-A type of research increasingly used by the health industry which provides information about how a specific procedure or treatment regimen results: the subject (clinical safety and efficacy), the subject's physical functioning and lifestyle, and economic considerations such as saving/prolonging life and avoiding costly complications.

overfat-Typically defined as a BMI in excess of 25.

overload principle-One of the principles of human performance that states that beneficial adaptations occur in response to demands applied to the body at levels beyond a certain threshold (overload), but within the limits of tolerance and safety.



overload-To work intensely and vigorously beyond what you are used to; resistance, intensity, duration or frequency can be increased by increments of up to 10% in a workout to achieve overload in a progressive manner (followed by 48 hours for recovery); see progressive overload.

overtraining-Excessive hard training day-after-day without proper rest to ensure recovery.

overuse injury-An injury caused by activity that places too much stress on one area of the body over an extended period.

overuse-Doing too much, too intensely, too frequently, or for too long; many injuries are caused by overuse.

overweight-More than "normal" body weight based on standard charts, after adjustment for height, body build and age; overweight is not the same as overfat.

oxidation-The process of combining with oxygen, often associated in nutrition with the breakdown of a nutritient (Ex. Fat oxidation).

oxidation-Use of oxygen to split or breakdown molecules; Example: When oxygen is available, fat can be broken down (oxidized) by the oxygen molecule.

oxygen consumption-The amount of oxygen the body can take in and utilize.

oxygen debt-The extra oxygen (above normal resting levels) needed to recover from physical activity.

oxygen deficit-A temporary shortage of oxygen due to exercise.

Pp

palpation-Use of hands and/or fingers to detect anatomical structures or an arterial pulse (e.g., carotid pulse).

palpitation-A pounding or racing of the heart; associated with emotional responses or with certain heart disorders.

patella-Kneecap.

pecs-Slang for pectoral muscles of the chest.

peptide bond - Bond between two amino acids.

perceived exertion-The subjective perception of exercise effort; see Borg's scale (of perceived exertion).

percent body fat-Refers to the ratio of fat to lean tissue and muscle mass.

periodization-The alternating of training intensities over periods of days, weeks, months, or years.

peripheral vascular resistance-Impedance of blood flow in the peripheral (farthest from the center) blood vessels. phosphagens-High-energy phosphate molecules that can be broken down for immediate use by the cells; adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate (CP).

physical fitness-A set of attributes that relates to the ability to perform physical activity.

physiological adaptations-Changes that occur as a result of stimuli to the various systems involved in life functions (muscular, cardiovascular, skeletal, etc.)

physiology-The study of essential life processes, functions, and activities.

phytochemical-Phytochemicals are substances found in edible fruits and vegetables that may be ingested by humans daily in gram quantities and that exhibit a potential for modulating the human metabolism in a manner favorable for reducing risk of cancer. (see functional foods)

placebo-Sometimes casually referred to as a "sugar pill," a placebo is a "fake" treatment which seems identical to the real treatment. Placebo treatments are used to eliminate bias that may arise from the expectation that a treatment should produce an effect.

plantar flexion-Ankle movement pointing toes toward ground, or away from body.

plantar-Of or pertaining to the sole of the foot.

plateau-A point in training at which one no longer sees improvements from one's current exercise routine; maintaining one's muscular size, strength, and/or athletic performance in spite of increased training efforts.

plates-Lead plates of weight used in resistance training.

plyometric exercises-The sudden eccentric loading and stretching of muscles followed by their forceful concentric contraction; the sudden stretch causes a forceful contraction, i.e., jumping from a bench to the ground, then jumping back onto the bench.

PNF stretching-See proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation.

polypeptide-Chain of amino acids.

polyunsaturated fats-A bond of at least 3 fatty acids with two or more points of unsaturation; polyunsaturated fats are found in raw nuts, some vegetables and grains; preferable to saturated fats.

positive (concentric)-The part of a resistance exercise when the exerciser lifts the weight by pushing or pulling.

posterior-Back portion or toward the back; Example: a tendon located behind the inner ankle is the posterior tibialis tendon.

post-menopausal-Pertaining to the period of time after menopause.

power-The speed at which one can apply a force over a given distance; Power = Force x Distance/Time.

premenopausal-Pertaining to the time before menopause.

prevalence-The number of existing cases of a disease in a defined population at a specified time.

prime mover-A muscle or set of muscles that acts directly to bring about a specific movement; most body movements are a combined action of many muscles.

progressive overload-Incremental increases of the workload, frequency, intensity, duration, load prescription, interval time, number of repetitions, or number of sets.

pronation-Rotation of a limb toward the midline of the body; turning the palm downward or flattening the arch of the foot; Pronation is a common foot problem which could predispose an athlete to injury; see orthotics.

prone-Lying face down in a horizontal position.

proprioception-Awareness of the body's relative position to the outside world; Information from proprioceptors and the eyes is interpreted by the brain to allow postural alignment and balance to be maintained; see proprioceptor.

proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation- (PNF)-A technique for increasing flexibility; the muscle is stretched, isometrically contracted, then stretched farther.

proprioceptor-A sensory receptor that aids in judging body position and changes in position; Proprioceptors are located in muscles, joints, tendons and sensory hair cells in the balance organ of the inner ear; see proprioception.

prospective study-Epidemiological research that follows a group of people over a period of time to observe the potential effects of diet, behavior and other factors on health or the incidence of disease. In general, this is considered a more valid research design than retrospective research.

protagonists-Muscles working together to create a certain movement.

protein-Chemically, a protein is a complex nitrogenous compound made up of amino acids in peptide linkages. Dietary proteins are involved in the synthesis of tissue protein and other special metabolic functions. In anabolic processes they furnish the amino acids required to build and maintain body tissues. As an energy source, proteins are equivalent to carbohydrates in providing 4 calories per gram. Proteins perform a major structural role in all body tissues and in the formation of enzymes, hormones and various body fluids and secretions. Proteins participate in the transport of some lipids, vitamins and minerals and help maintain the body's homeostasis.

proteins-Food substances formed of amino acids; The function of proteins is to build and repair tissue for hormone production and enzyme function. Proteins consist of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon and hydrogen.

protraction-Scapular abduction.

proximal-Anatomical term meaning closer to the trunk of the body; nearest the point of attachment or nearest the center of the body.

pulmonary-Affecting the lungs or lung tissue.

pumped-Slang term used to describe the tightness in a muscle made large through exercise; the pumped sensation results from blood engorgement and lactic acid accumulation in the exercised muscle.

pumping iron-Slang for lifting weights; a phrase used since the 1950s.

pyruvic acid/pyruvate-End product of the glycolytic pathway; three-carbon metabolite that in aerobic conditions becomes acetyl Co-A and enters the Kreb's cycle, or, under anaerobic conditions will become lactic acid.

Qq

quads-Slang for quadriceps; the four thigh muscles that extend the knee.

Rr

'roids-Slang for anabolic steroid.

R.I.C.E.-Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation; the immediate treatment for most sudden athletic injuries.

radial artery-The artery in the wrist commonly used to take the pulse; The radial artery is located above the wrist, directly below the base of the thumb; generally considered the safest site for pulse monitoring.

random sample-A random sample is a procedure to select subjects for a study in which all individuals in a population being studied have an equal chance of being selected. using a random sample allows the results of the study to be generalized to the entire population.

The term random also applies to assignments within controlled studies, or the division of subjects into groups. Random assignment ensures that all subjects have an equal chance of being in the experimental and control groups, and increases the probability that any unidentified variable will systematically occur in both groups with the same frequency.

Randomization is crucial to control for variables that researchers may not be aware of or cannot adequately control, but which could affect the outcome of an experimental study.

random sampling-A method by which subjects are selected to participate in a study in which all individuals in a population have and equal chance of being chosen. This helps to ensure the generalizability of the study results.

randomization, or random assignment-A process of assigning subjects to experimental or control groups in which the subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to each group. Randomization is used to control for known, unknown and difficult-to-control-for variables.

range of motion (ROM)-The maximum motion allowed by muscles, joints, ligaments, tendons and the structure of the bones. rating of perceived exertion (RPE)-Developed by Borg, this scale provides a standard means for evaluating a participant's perception of their physical exertion; the original scale was 6-20; the revised scale is 0-10; see also Borg's scale (of perceived exertion).

RDA-The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is the dietary intake level that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all individuals in a specific age and gender group.

RDI- The values listed on the food labels for nutrients reflect average allowances based on the RDA. These values are referred to as Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs).

reciprocal innervation-Reflex utilized with stretch reflex to inhibit activity of an opposing muscle group.

recombinant DNA (rDNA)-The DNA formed by combining segments of DNA from different organisms.

recruitment-Activation of motor units; the greater the resistance encountered, the greater will be the recruitment necessary to overcome its inertia.

reliability-Whether a test or instrument used to collect data, such as a questionnaire, gives the same results if repeated on the same person several times. A reliable test gives reproducible results.

repetition maximum (RM)-Maximal number of repetitions one can perform a given exercise at a given weight and intensity while using proper exercise form.

repetitions (reps)-Number of times a particular movement is performed.

research design-How a study is set up to collect information, or data. For valid results, the design must be appropriate to answer the question or hypothesis being studied.

residual volume-The air that stays in the lungs after breathing out as much as possible; the portion of the lungs which is not ventilated.

resistance-The amount of weight used in each set of an exercise.

respiratory or pulmonary-Referring to the lungs.

resting heart rate (RHR)-The heart rate upon awakening from sleep before sitting up, averaged over a three-day period; normally, the lower the heart rate at rest, the better aerobic condition the person is in.

resting metabolic rate (RMR)-Rate of body metabolism while conscious, but inactive.

retraction-Scapular adduction.

retrospective study-Research that relies on recall of past data, or on previously recorded information. Often this type of research is considered to have limitations, because the number of variables that cannot be controlled, and because memory is not infallible.

rheumatoid arthritis-Autoimmune disease that causes inflammation of connective tissues and joints.

ripped-Slang, meaning extremely visible muscularity resulting from both hypertrophy and subcutaneous fat removal, also referred to as shredded. risk-A term encompassing a variety of measures of the probability of an outcome. It's usually used in reference to unfavorable outcomes such as illness or death. Be certain to distinguish between absolute and relative risk.

risk factor-A risk factor is anything statistically shown to have a relationship with the incidence of a disease, however it does not necessarily infer cause and effect.

risk factors-Used to help assess an individual's predisposition to heart disease; includes heredity, blood pressure, diabetes, smoking, weight, cholesterol, exercise, emotional stress, age, sex, and body build.

RM-Acronym for "repetitions maximum"; Example: 5RM stands for the maximum amount of weight you can perform for five repetitions.

RNA-Also known as ribonucleic acid. RNA is a molecule similar to DNA that functions primarily to decode the instructions carried by genes for protein synthesis.

ROM-See range of motion.

rotator cuff-Four intrinsic muscles of the shoulder that help to rotate the arm and keep the humerus in the glenoid fossa during activity.

RPE-See rating of perceived exertion.

Ss

saccharin-Saccharin, the oldest of the non-nutritive sweeteners, is currently produced from purified, manufactured methyl anthranilate, a substance occurring naturally in grapes. It is 300 times sweeter than sucrose, heat stable and does not promote dental caries. Saccharin has a long shelf life, but a slightly bitter aftertaste. It is not metabolized in the human digestive system, is excreted rapidly in the urine and does not accumulate in body.

sacral curve-Curve which is formed from the sacrum and coccyx in the area of the lower back and buttocks.

saddle joint-Joint in which the concave surfaces of two bones articulate with one another; movement is possible in two planes; a bi-axial joint; resembles a saddle; capable of flexion, extension, abduction, adduction and circumduction; Example: the thumb is a saddle joint.

sagittal plane-Anatomical term referring to the imaginary longitudinal line that divides the body or any of its parts into right and left sections; the mid-sagittal line divides both halves equally; Motions within the sagittal plane include flexion and extension.

SAID principle-Acronym for the exercise training principle "specific adaptations to imposed demands"; training must be relative to the sport or activity for physiological change to take place and is specific to the action, energy systems, and muscle fibers.

salmonella-Salmonella is a Gram-negative bacterium, occurring in many animals, especially poultry and swine. In the environment, salmonella can be found in water, soil, insects, factory and kitchen surfaces, animal fecal matter, and raw meats, poultry (including eggs) and seafood. Acute symptoms of the illness caused by the Salmonella species include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, headache and fever.

sarcomere-Repeating base unit that composes a muscle fiber.

saturated fats-Fatty acids that have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms they can accommodate; found primarily in animal sources and a few plant fats; may lead to high cholesterol and heart disease; these fats are solid at room temperature.

scoliosis-Lateral curvature of the spine; usually evident in the upper or lower back.

secondary assessment-Assessment performed on an injured person after immediate life or limb-threatening injuries and illnesses have been identified; this more thorough evaluation is performed to identify more subtle, yet still important, injuries such as broken bones, sprains, strains, cuts, and other injuries.

sedentary-Not active.

seizure-A disorder originating from the brain in which there is a disturbance of movement, behavior, sensation, or consciousness.

set-A grouping of repetitions performed without rest; Example: an exerciser may perform 8 repetitions in a set of leg extensions.

set-point theory-A weight-control theory that states that each person has an established normal body weight, deviation from this set point will lead to changes in body metabolism to return to established 'normal weight' of that individual's body.

shin splints-An overuse syndrome including pain in the anterior lower leg; recommended treatment: R.I.C.E., wrap the shin, and support the plantar arch if necessary; see R.I.C.E.

side stitch (ache)-A pain in the side usually caused by insufficient oxygen to the diaphragm, improper breathing, or intestinal gas.

sliding filament theory-An accepted theory explaining the interaction between actin and myosin proteins and ATP to cause muscle contraction.

slow-twitch (type I fiber)-Muscle fiber characterized by its slow speed of contraction and a high capacity for aerobic glycolysis; also referred to as "red muscle fibers."

smooth muscle-Involuntary muscle tissue found in the walls of almost every organ of the body.

somatotype-Body type; see endomorph, ectomorph, and mesomorph.

spasm-See muscle cramp.

specificity of training-Principle of exercise training which refers to the fact that training the muscles in a specific way for a specific sport does not condition the body for different sports or exercises; Example: a marathon runner trains for distance running, but may not be able to do intense weight lifting. Only the systems we overload become stronger. see also SAID principle.

sphygmomanometer-An instrument used for measuring blood pressure in the arteries, usually at the brachial artery.

spina bifida-Spina bifida is a birth defect in which the infant is born with the spinal cord exposed. These children can grow to adulthood although they often suffer from paralysis and other disabilities. Also, see "neural tube defects (NTDs)."

spondylolisthesis-Forward displacement of one vertebra over another; usually occurs at the 4th or 5th lumbar vertebrae.

spondylolysis-The breaking down (dissolving into another) of a vertebra; usually beginning with a stress fracture.

sport performance-The ability to achieve a high level of physical function within a given sport.

spot reducing-A myth suggesting that a high number of exercise repetitions in a particular area can significantly reduce the fat content in that area.

sprain-Stretching or tearing of ligaments of a joint, following a sudden twisting, wrenching or external force.

stabilizer muscle-Muscle that stabilizes (or fixes) one joint so a desired movement can be performed in another joint.

staleness-Term referring to the experience of reaching a plateau in one's training program.

static-Position held without noticeable movement; Static stretching involves a slow, deliberate stretch until you feel a tightness in the muscle, but before you feel pain. Hold the stretch for 15-60 seconds.

statistical power-A mathematical quantity that indicates the probability a study has of obtaining a statistically significant effect. A high power of 80 percent, or 0.8, indicates that the study - if conducted repeatedly - would produce a statistically significant effect 80 percent of the time. On the other hand, a power of only 0.1 means there would be a 90 percent chance that the research missed the effect - if one exists at all.

statistical significance-The probability of obtaining an effect or association in a study sample as or more extreme that the one observed if there was actually no effect in the population. Based on the hypothesis that if there truly is no effect, the results of a study are unlikely to have occurred. A P value of less than five percent (P<0.05) means the result would occur less than five percent of the time if there were no effect, and is generally considered evidence of a true treatment effect or a true relationship.

steroids - Naturally-occurring and synthetic chemicals that include some hormones, bile acids, and other substances; see anabolic androgenic steroids and 'roids.

strain-An injury of muscles or tendons or adjacent tissue such as the fascia as a result of over stretching or overexertion; see muscle tear.

strength-The ability to apply a force for a given distance; the ability to move a given amount of weight for a given distance; Strength = Force x Distance.

stress fracture-Fine, hairline fracture of the bone usually from repetitive stress; it may not show in an X-ray for several weeks; characterized by sharp persistent pain; Stress fractures are commonly caused by overuse, hard surfaces, or improper footwear.

stretch reflex-The body's automatic defensive action that stops the stretch action and protects against severe injury or abuse during stretching; see proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation, Golgi tendon organ (GTO), and muscle spindle.

stroke volume-Amount of blood pumped per beat by the left ventricle; increases with regular aerobic exercise.

stroke-A sudden and often severe attack due to blockage of an artery into the brain; see cerebrovascular accident.

subluxation-A partial dislocation of a joint that usually reduces itself.

submaximal aerobic exercise test-A cardiorespiratory fitness test designed so that the intensity does not exceed 85 percent of heart-rate reserve or maximal oxygen uptake; this provides an estimation of maximal oxygen uptake without the risks associated with maximal exercise testing.

sucralose- Sucralose is the only low-calorie sweetener that is made from sugar. It is approximately 600-times sweeter and does not contain calories. Sucralose is highly stable under a wide variety of processing conditions. Thus, it can be used virtually anywhere sugar can, including cooking and baking, without losing any of its sugar-like sweetness. Currently, sucralose is approved in over 25 countries around the world for use in food and beverages.

sucrose-Sucrose, a type of sugar, is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose. Also, see "carbohydrates."

sugar-Although the consumer is confronted by a wide variety of sugars -- sucrose, raw sugar, turbinado sugar, brown sugar, honey, corn syrup -- there is no significant difference in the nutritional content or energy each provides, and therefore no advantage of one nutritionally over another. There also is no evidence that the body can distinguish between naturally occurring or added sugars in food products.

superficial-External; located close to or on the body surface

superior-Anatomical term meaning located closer to the head; opposite of inferior.

superset-Alternating between two exercises until the prescribed number of sets is completed; the two exercises generally involve a protagonist and antagonist (e.g., the pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi), but common usage of the term can mean any two exercises alternated with one another.

supination-Upward rotation of a limb, usually the hand or forearm, in an opened position.

supine-Horizontal position of the body, lying with the face upwards.

sympathetic nervous system-A division of the autonomic nervous system that activates the body to cope with some stressor (i.e., fight or flight response).

syncope-Fainting; a transient state of unconsciousness resulting from a lack of oxygen to the brain. synergistic-Working together in a coordinated fashion; a synergistic muscle assists another muscle in its function.

synovial fluid-Transparent, viscous lubricating fluid found in the joints, bursae, and tendon sheaths; a proper warm-up stimulates its secretion.

systole-The contraction phase of the cardiac cycle during which blood leaves the ventricles.

systolic blood pressure-The pressure exerted by the blood on the blood vessel walls during ventricular contractions.

Tt

talk test-Subjective test for measuring exercise intensity by observing respiration effort and the ability to talk while exercising.

target heart rate (THR)-The number of heartbeats per minute at which one should exercise for a desired result; 60-85% of the maximum heart rate is recommended for most people.

tendinitis-The inflammation or swelling of a tendon as a result of injury or overuse.

tendon-A tough cord or band of dense, white, fibrous connective tissue connecting a muscle to a bone; a tendon transmits the force exerted by a muscle.

testosterone-Testosterone is an androgen, a sex hormone produced by all humans. It is important in the development of male gonads and sex characteristics and it stimulates growth in tissues on which it acts.

thoracic curve-Outward curve formed by the thoracic vertebrae in the area of the upper back between the cervical and lumbar areas.

thrashed-Slang, worn-out from working very hard.

thrombosis-The formation, development or presence of a blood clot (thrombus).

torque-Moment of force causing rotation about a fixed axis of rotation; the act or process of turning around on an axis.

total lung capacity-The volume of gas in the lungs at the end of a maximum inhalation.

training effect-Change in functional capacity of muscles and other bodily tissues as a result of overload placed upon them during training.

training heart rate-Heart rate range that an individual exercises at to elicit a specific response; Example, the fat utilization training zone.

training to failure-Performing a set in weight training until inability to complete another repetition without assistance or breaking proper form.

training zone-Training heart rate range; see also target heart rate.

trans fats-Trans fats occur naturally in beef, butter, milk and lamb fats and in commercially prepared, partially hydrogenated margarines and solid cooking fats. The main sources of trans fats in the American diet today are margarine, shortening, commercial frying fats and high-fat baked goods. Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils were developed in part to help displace highly saturated animal and vegetable fats used in frying, baking and spreads. However, trans fats, like saturated fats, may raise blood LDL cholesterol levels (the so-called "bad" cholesterol). At high consumption, levels may also reduce the HDL or "good" cholesterol levels.

transient ischemic attack (TIA)-Momentary dizziness, loss of consciousness or forgetfulness caused by a short-lived lack of oxygen (blood) to the brain; usually due to a partial blockage of an artery, it is a warning sign for a stroke.

transverse plane-Dissection of the body (or body part) into a top and a bottom portion; motions within this plane include rotation of the particular body part.

traps-Slang for trapezius muscles; the largest muscles of the back and neck that elevate the shoulder girdle and draw the scapulae medially.

tri's-Slang for triceps brachii muscle, located at the back of the arm.

triathlon-Race with three parts: a swim, a bicycle ride, and a run.

triglyceride-The storage form of fat consisting of three free fatty acids and glycerol.

troponin-A contractile protein that reacts with calcium to set the contractile mechanism into action within muscle fibers.

Uu

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)-The United States Department of Agriculture comprises of many agencies charged with different tasks related to agriculture and our food supply. Among these is ensuring a safe, affordable, nutritious and accessible food supply. The USDA also enhances the quality of life for the American population by supporting production of agricultural products; caring for agricultural, forest and range lands; supporting sound development of our rural communities; providing economic opportunities for farm and rural residents; expanding global markets for agricultural and forest products and services; and working to reduce hunger in America and throughout the world.

UL-The Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) is the maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is unlikely to pose risks of adverse health effects to almost all of the individuals in the group for whom it is designed. This figure is being established to set maximum-level guidelines to reduce the risk of adverse effects from over-consumption of a nutrient.

unilateral-Affecting only one side.

Vv

validity-The extent to which a study or study instrument measures what it is intended to measure. Refers to accuracy or truthfulness in regard to a study's conclusion.

valsalva maneuver-To force the breath against a closed throat, i.e., holding the breath, tightening the muscles, and making a strong effort to lift a weight; The valsalva maneuver is especially dangerous to clients with high blood pressure or heart disease.

variability-The training technique of changing (varying) exercise sessions to prevent overuse, to prevent injuries, and to increase interest and adherence while minimizing staleness in a training program.

variable-Any characteristic that may vary in study subjects, such as gender, age, body weight, diet, behavior, attitude or other attribute. In an experiment, the treatment is called the independent variable; it is the factor being investigated. The variable that is influenced by the treatment is the dependent variable; it may change as a result of the effect of the independent variable.

variable resistance equipment-Strength training equipment which can, through the use of elliptical cams and other such technology, vary the amount of weight being lifted to match the strength curve for a particular exercise; Example, Nautilus machines.

vascularity-The degree to which veins are observable.

vasoconstriction-Decrease in diameter of a blood vessel.

vasodilation-Increase in the diameter of a blood vessel. vasodilator-An agent (motor nerve or drug) that acts to relax (dilate) a blood vessel.

vegan-A "pure" vegetarian who excludes all animal-derived foods from the diet including dairy products, fish, eggs -- even honey.

vegetarian-According to the Vegetarian Resource Group, less than 1 percent of Americans are true vegetarians. Such people never eat meat, fish or poultry, although they may eat foods derived from animals such as dairy products and eggs (lacto-ovo vegetarians). There are even fewer vegans, strict vegetarians who avoid all animal-derived foods -- even honey.

veins-Blood vessels that carry blood, usually deoxygenated (except in the case of the pulmonary vein), to the heart. ventricle-One of the two (left and right) lower chambers of the heart; The muscular left ventricle pumps blood to the body and is the portion of the heart in which adaptation to exercise is usually most visible. The smaller right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs.

vitamins-Vitamins are organic compounds that are nutritionally essential in small amounts to control metabolic processes and cannot be synthesized by the body. Vitamins are usually classified by their solubility, which to some degree determines their stability, occurrence in foodstuffs, distribution in body fluids, and tissue storage capacity. Each of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K has a distinct and separate physiologic role. Several have antioxidant properties which depress the effects of metabolic byproducts called free radicals, which are thought to cause degenerative changes related to aging. Most of the water-soluble vitamins are components of essential enzyme systems; many are involved in the reactions supporting energy metabolism. These vitamins are not normally stored in the body in appreciable amounts and are normally excreted in the urine. Thus, a daily supply is desirable to avoid depletion and interruption of normal physiologic functions.

VO2 max-See maximal oxygen consumption.

Ww

waist-to-hip circumference ratio (WTH)-Measure for determining health risk due to the site of fat storage; taken by dividing the abdominal girth (waist measurement) by the hip measurement to form a ratio.

waiver-Voluntary abandonment of a right to file suit; not always legally binding.

warm-up-A pre-workout routine that prepares the body for strenuous exercise; Warming up generally consists of light, progressive movements that stimulate heart, lungs, and muscles. The goal of the warm-up is to increase nutrient flow and heat of the muscles through increased blood flow throughout the body. Stretching is not advised as a warm-up strategy because of the damage that is easily caused to cold muscles.

water-Although deficiencies of energy or nutrients can be sustained for months or even years, a person can survive only a few days without water. Experts rank water second only to oxygen as essential for life. In addition to offering true refreshment for the thirsty, water plays a vital role in all bodily processes. It supplies the medium in which various chemical changes of the body occur, aiding in digestion, absorption, circulation and lubrication of body joints. For example, as a major component of blood, water helps deliver nutrients to body cells and removes waste to the kidneys for excretion.

water soluble vitamins-Vitamins that are soluble in water, not fat. Most of the water-soluble vitamins are components of essential enzyme systems. Many are involved in the reactions supporting energy metabolism. These vitamins are not normally stored in the body in appreciable amounts and are normally excreted in the urine. Thus, a daily supply is desirable to avoid depletion and interruption of normal physiologic functions.

water soluble-Able to dissolve in water.

Weight-control information Network-See WIN.

WIC-Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children. Established in 1972, the WIC program provides food and nutrition education to improve the nutritional status of medically high-risk pregnant and lactating women and children up to 5 years of age from low-income families. The program is administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

WIN-Weight-control information Network. A division of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases of the National Institutes of Health under the Public Health Service. Authorized by Congress (Public Law 103-43), WIN assembles and disseminates information on weight control, obesity, and nutritional disorders to health professionals and the general public. WIN, 1 WIN Way, Bethesda, MD 20892-3665. (301) 570-2186. Internet Address: http://www.nidk.nih.gov//NutritionDocs.html.

work load-Amount of physical effort required for a specified task (often referred to in Watts).

work-in-To share equipment with another person; each individual performs a set and then allows the other person to perform a set.

work-Physical effort required to accomplish a task.

Xx

xenobiotics-Synthetic chemicals believed to be resistant to environmental degradation. A branch of biotechnology called bioremediation is seeking to develop biological methods to degrade such compounds.

Yy

Zz